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, 23:08, 19 April 2009New page: This is the Quasi Brands informational quasi-white paper on Algae Fuel. '''Algae fuel''', also called '''algal fuel''', '''oilgae''',<ref> {...
This is the Quasi Brands informational [[Directory/Quasi Brands/Quasi-white papers|quasi-white paper]] on Algae Fuel.
'''Algae fuel''', also called '''algal fuel''', '''oilgae''',<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.oilgae.com/
| title= Oilgae.com – Oil from Algae! [Algae Fuel Making][AlgaeFuelMaking.Com]
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref> '''algaeoleum''' or '''third-generation biofuel''',<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://www.iata.org/pressroom/facts_figures/fact_sheets/alt_fuels.htm Alternative Fuels<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> is a [[biofuel]] from [[algae]].
The record [[oil price increases since 2003]], competing demands between foods and other biofuel sources and the [[world food crisis]] have ignited interest in [[algaculture]] (farming algae) for making [[vegetable oil]], [[biodiesel]], [[bioethanol]], [[biogasoline]], [[biomethanol]], [[biobutanol]] and other [[biofuel]]s. Among algal fuels' attractive characteristics: they do not affect [[fresh water]] resources,<ref name="gas2.0"> {{cite web
| url= http://gas2.org/2008/03/29/first-algae-biodiesel-plant-goes-online-april-1-2008/
| title= First Algae Biodiesel Plant Goes Online: April 1, 2008
| last= Cornell | first= Clayton B.
| date= 2008-03-29 |work= |publisher= Gas 2.0
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref> can be produced using ocean and [[wastewater]], and are [[biodegradable]] and relatively harmless to the environment if spilled.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.globeco.co.uk/Bio-diesel_news_0007.html
| title= "'Green Dream' Backed by MPs"
| month= January | year= 2003 |work= |publisher= ''[[Eastern Daily Press]]''
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref><ref>
[http://www.friendsofethanol.com/facts.html Friends of Ethanol.com biodegradable ethanol]
{{Dead link|date=June 2008}} </ref><ref>
{{cite web
| url= http://www.energy-arizona.org/archive/200708280001_low_cost_algae_production_system_introduced.php
| title= Low Cost Algae Production System Introduced
| date= 2007-08-28 |work= | publisher= Energy-Arizona
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref> Algae cost more per pound yet can yield over 30 times more energy per acre than other, second-generation biofuel crops.{{Fact|date=January 2009}} One biofuels company has claimed that algae can produce more oil in an area the size of a two-car garage than a football field of [[soybean]]s, because almost the entire algal organism can use sunlight to produce lipids, or oil.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.solixbiofuels.com/html/why_algae.html
| title= Why Algae?
|date= |year= |month= |format= |work= | publisher= Solix Biofuels
| accessdate= 2008-06-11 }} </ref> The [[United States Department of Energy]] estimates that if algae fuel replaced all the petroleum fuel in the United States, it would require 15,000 [[square mile]]s (40,000 [[square kilometer]]s), which is a few thousand square miles larger than [[Maryland]], or 1.3 [[Belgium]]s.<ref name="Hartman"/> This is less than 1/7th the area of [[corn]] harvested in the United States in 2000.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/ag101/cropmajor.html
| title= Major Crops Grown in the United States
|date= |year= |month= |format= |work= | publisher= [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]]
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref><ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.chathamdailynews.ca/ArticleDisplay.aspx?e=1075914
| title= "A replacement for oil"
| last= Dyer | first= Gwynne | authorlink= Gwynne Dyer
|date= 2008-06-17 | publisher= ''The Chatham Daily News''
| accessdate= 2008-06-18 }} </ref>
As of 2008, such fuels remain too expensive to replace other commercially available fuels, with the cost of various algae species typically between US$5–10 per kg dry weight.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} But several companies and government agencies are funding efforts to reduce capital and operating costs and make algae oil production commercially viable. See how it's made, [http://www.AlgaeFuelMaking.Com Algae Fuel] <ref name="Hartman"> {{cite web
| url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/03/AR2008010303907.html
| title= "A Promising Oil Alternative: Algae Energy"
| last= Hartman | first= Eviana
| date= 2008-01-06 | publisher= ''[[The Washington Post]]''
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref><ref>
{{cite web
| url= http://wwwlib.murdoch.edu.au/adt/pubfiles/adt-MU20050901.140745/02Whole.pdf
|format=PDF| title= {PhD thesis on algae production for bioenergy}
<!-- Actual title, author, date not included. -->
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
|date= |year= |month= |format= [[PDF]] |work= |publisher= [[Murdoch University]], [[Western Australia]]
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref>
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== History ==
{{See|Aquatic Species Program}}
The '''[[Aquatic Species Program]]''' launched in 1978. The [[United States|U.S.]] research program, funded by the [[United States Department of Energy|U.S. DoE]], was tasked with investigating the use of algae for the production of energy. The program initially focused efforts on the production of [[hydrogen]], however, shifted primary research to studying oil production in 1982. From 1982 through its culmination, the majority of the program research was focused on the production of transportation fuels, notably [[biodiesel]], from algae. In 1995, as part of the over-all efforts to lower budget demands, the DoE decided to end the program. Research stopped in 1996 and staff began compiling their research for publication. In July 1998, the DoE published the report [http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pdfs/biodiesel_from_algae.pdf "A Look Back at the U.S. Department of Energy's Aquatic Species Program: Biodiesel from Algae"]<ref>[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pdfs/biodiesel_from_algae.pdf A Look Back at the U.S. Department of Energy Aquatic Species Program: Biodiesel from Algae; Page 7]</ref>.
In 2008, [[Time Magazine]] voted [[Isaac Berzin]] one of the world's most influential persons for his ability to turn a dream of an oil-free future into a reality through [[GreenFuel]], founded in Boston in 2001.
== Factors==
Dry algae factor is the [[percentage]] of algae cells in relation with the media where it is cultured, e.g. if the dry algae factor is 50%, one would need 2 kg of wet algae (algae in the media) to get 1 kg of algae cells.
Lipid factor is the percentage of vegoil in relation with the algae cells needed to get it, i.e. if the algae lipid factor is 40%, one would need 2.5 kg of algae cells to get 1 kg of oil.{{Fact|date=March 2009}}
==Yield==
Yields (gallons of oil per acre per year) cover a vast range from 5,000 to 150,000. If all aspects of the cultivation are controlled - temperature, CO<sub>2</sub> levels, sunlight and nutrients (including carbohydrates as a food source), then extremely high yields can be obtained. Such variation can make calculations on which to base 'fuel the world' scenarios very difficult.
For example, Glen Kertz of Valcent Products http://www.valcent.net, claims that "algae can produce 100,000 gallons of oil per acre" per year. This relies on growing the algae in an entirely closed loop system.
More recently, Valcent have claimed 150,000 gallons may be possible
<ref name="valcent"> {{cite web
| url= http://www.valcent.net/s/NewsReleases.asp?ReportID=182076&_Type=News-Releases&_Title=Valcent-Products-Inc.-Develops-Clean-Green-Vertical-Bio-Reactor
| title= Valcent Products Inc,. - News Releases - Valcent Products Inc. Develops "Clean Green" Vertical Bio-Reactor - Sat Jan 17, 2009
}} </ref>; whereas in reality, their most recent actual reported yields were 33,000 gallons per acre per year<ref name="valcent2"> {{cite web
| url= http://www.valcent.net/s/NewsReleases.asp?ReportID=277235
| title= Valcent Products Inc,. - News Releases - Initial Data From the Vertigro Field Test Bed Plant Reports Average Production of 276 Tons of Algae Bio Mass on a Per Acre/Per Year Basis - Sat Jan 17, 2009
}} </ref>.
== Fuels ==
The vegoil algae product can then be harvested and converted into biodiesel; the algae’s [[carbohydrate]] content can be fermented into [[bioethanol]] and [[biobutanol]].<ref name="merinews"> {{cite web
| url= http://www.merinews.com/catFull.jsp?articleID=135399
| title= "Biofuels from industrial/domestic wastewater"
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
|date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=
| accessdate= 2008-06-11 }} </ref>
===Biodiesel===
Currently most research into efficient algal-oil production is being done in the private sector, but predictions from small scale production experiments bear out that using algae to produce [[biodiesel]] may be the only viable method by which to produce enough automotive fuel to replace current world diesel usage.<ref name="BiodieselFromAlgae">{{cite web |last = |first = | year = | url = http://www.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pdfs/biodiesel_from_algae.pdf |format=PDF|title = Biodiesel Production from Algae | work = |publisher = Department of Energy [[Aquatic Species Program]], National Renewable Energy Laboratory | accessdate = 2006-08-29}}</ref>
Microalgae have much faster growth-rates than terrestrial crops. The per unit area yield of oil from algae is estimated to be from between 5,000 to 50,000 gallons per acre, per year {{Fact|date=January 2009}}(4.6 to 18.4 l/m<sup>2</sup> per year); this is 7 to 30 times greater than the next best crop, [[Chinese tallow]] (699 gallons).<ref name="Biodiesel"> See [[Biodiesel]]. </ref>
Studies show that algae can produce up to 60% of their biomass in the form of oil. Because the cells grow in aqueous suspension where they have more efficient access to water, [[CO2]] and dissolved nutrients, microalgae are capable of producing large amounts of biomass and usable oil in either high rate algal ponds or photobioreactors. This oil can then be turned into [[biodiesel]] which could be sold for use in automobiles. The more efficient this process becomes the larger the profit that is turned by the company. Regional production of microalgae and processing into biofuels will provide economic benefits to rural communities.<ref name="SARDI AQUATIC SCIENCES">
{{cite web
| url= http://www.pir.sa.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/77055/microalgal_prod.pdf
|format=PDF| title= Microalgal Production SARDI AQUATIC SCIENCES
| last= | first= | date= |work= | publisher= [[Government of South Australia]]
| accessdate= 2008-11-03 }} </ref>
===Biobutanol ===
{{Main|Butanol fuel}}
Butanol can be made from [[algae]] or [[diatom]]s using only a solar powered [[biorefinery]]. This fuel has an energy density similar to [[gasoline]], and greater than that of either [[ethanol fuel|ethanol]] or [[methanol fuel|methanol]]. In most gasoline engines, butanol can be used in place of gasoline with no modifications. In several tests, butanol consumption is similar to that of gasoline, and when blended with gasoline, provides better performance and corrosion resistance than that of ethanol or [[E85]]<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/air/caaac/mstrs/March2007/Wolf.pdf]</ref>.
The green waste left over from the algae oil extraction can be used to produce butanol.
=== Biogasoline ===
Biogasoline can be produced from algae.
===Methane===
Through the use of algaculture grown organisms and cultures, various [[polymeric]] materials can be broken down into [[methane]].<ref name="MethanProductionFromAlgae">{{cite web |last = |first = | year = | url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7241e/w7241e0f.htm#TopOfPage |title = Methane production | work = |publisher = FAO, Agriculture Department | accessdate = 2006-08-29}}</ref>
===SVO===
The algal-oil feedstock that is used to produce biodiesel can also be used for fuel directly as "[[Straight Vegetable Oil]]", (SVO). The benefit of using the oil in this manner is that it doesn't require the additional energy needed for [[transesterification]], (processing the oil with an alcohol and a catalyst to produce biodiesel). The drawback is that it does require modifications to a normal diesel engine. Transesterified [[biodiesel]] can be run in an unmodified modern diesel engine, provided the engine is designed to use [[ultra-low sulfur diesel]], which, as of 2006, is the new diesel fuel standard in the United States.
===Hydrocracking to traditional transport fuels===
{{Main|Vegetable oil refining|Green crude}}
Vegetable oil can be used as feedstock for an [[oil refinery]] where methods like [[hydrocracking]] or [[hydrogenation]] can be used to transform the vegetable oil into standard fuels like [[gasoline]] and [[diesel]].<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.greencarcongress.com/2006/12/conocophillips_.html
| title= ConocoPhillips Begins Production of Renewable Diesel Fuel at Whitegate Refinery
| date= 2006-12-20 |work= | publisher= Green Car Congress
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref>
===Jet Fuel===
Twenty-five airlines went bust or stopped operations in the first six months of 2008 and more could fold as fuel prices soar, aviation industry association [[IATA]] has warned.<ref>[http://news.asiaone.com/News/Latest+News/Business/Story/A1Story20080708-75407.html More airlines fold as fuel prices soar: IATA<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Algal jet fuel can be used as alternative: IATA recognizes that aircraft are long lived and will be using kerosene or kerosene-type fuels for many years. It supports research, development & deployment into alternative fuels that produce less GHG emissions over their life cycle and do not compete for land with fuel crops. IATA’s goal is for its members to be using 10% alternative fuels by 2017.<ref name=autogenerated1 />
On January 8, 2009, [[Continental Airlines]] ran the first test for the first flight of an algae-fueled jet. The test was done using a twin-engine commercial jet consuming a 50/50 blend of biofuel and normal aircraft fuel. It was the first flight by a U.S. carrier to use an alternative fuel source on this specific type of aircraft. The flight from Houston's Bush International Airport completed a circuit over the Gulf of Mexico. The pilots on-board, executed a series of tests at 38,000 ft (11.6km), including a mid-flight engine shutdown. [[Larry Kellner]], chief executive of Continental Airlines, said they had tested a drop-in fuel which meant that no modification to the engine was required. The fuel was praised for having a low flash point and sufficiently low freezing point, issues that have been problematic for other bio-fuels. <ref>{{Cite news | title =First flight of algae-fuelled jet | publisher=[[BBC]] | date=2009-01-08 | accessdate=2009-01-09}}</ref>
==Algae cultivation==
Algae grow rapidly and can have a high percentage of lipids, or oils. They can double their mass several times a day and produce at least 15 times more oil per acre than alternatives such as rapeseed, palms, soybeans, or jatropha. Moreover, algae-growing facilities can be built on coastal land unsuitable for conventional agriculture.
They can grow 20 to 30 times faster than food crops.<ref name="Reuters"> {{cite web | url= http://www.reuters.com/article/environmentNews/idUSTRE5196HB20090210?pageNumber=2&virtualBrandChannel=0 | title= Can algae save the world - again?
| last= McDill | first= Stuart | date= 2009-02-10 |work= | publisher= [[Reuters]] | accessdate= 2009-02-10 }} </ref>
The hard part about algae production is growing the algae in a controlled way and harvesting it efficiently.
===PhotoBioreactors===
Most companies pursuing algae as a source of biofuels are pumping nutrient-[[wikt:laden|laden]] water through plastic tubes (called "[[bioreactor]]s" ) that are exposed to sunlight (and so called [[photobioreactor]]s or [[PBR]]).
Running a PBR is more difficult than a open [[pond]], and more costly.
Algae can also grow on marginal lands, such as in [[desert]] areas where the groundwater is saline, rather than utilise fresh water. <ref name="Worldwatch"> {{cite web | url= http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5391 | title= Better Than Corn? Algae Set to Beat Out Other Biofuel Feedstocks
| last= Herro | first= Alana | date= 2007-10-08 |work= | publisher= [[Worldwatch Institute]] | accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref>
The difficulties in efficient biodiesel production from algae lie in finding an algal strain with a high [[lipid]] content and fast growth rate that isn't too difficult to harvest, and a cost-effective cultivation system (i.e., type of photobioreactor) that is best suited to that strain. There is also a need to provide concentrated CO2 to turbocharge the production.
===Closed Loop System===
Another obstacle preventing widespread mass production of algae for biofuel production has been the equipment and structures needed to begin growing algae in large quantities. Diversified Energy Corporation (www.diversified-energy.com) has avoided this problem by taking a different approach and growing the algae in thin walled [[polyethylene]] tubing laid in troughs across a field. Maximum use of existing agriculture processes and hardware is the goal. XL Renewables, Inc is doing a similar approach by using conventional [[drip irrigation]] tubing, which can be incorporated into a normal agricultural environment.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.environmentalgraffiti.com/?p=237
| title= Will algae beat its competitors to become the king source of biofuels?
|author= 'Maryking' |last= |first=
| date= 2007-08-29 |work= |publisher= Environmental Graffiti
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref>
In a closed system (not exposed to open air) there is not the problem of contamination by other
organisms blown in by the air. The problem for a closed system is finding a cheap source of sterile [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>).
Several experimenters have found the CO<sub>2</sub> from a smokestack works well for growing algae.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0111/p01s03-sten.html
| title= "Algae — Like a Breath Mint for Smokestacks"
| last= Clayton | first= Mark |date= 2006-01-11 | publisher= ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]''
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref><ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.greenfuelonline.com/gf_files/GreenFuel%20Growth%20Rates.pdf
| title= Growth Rates of Emission-Fed Algae Show Viability of New Biomass Crop
|date= September 26 |year= |month= |format= PDF
| publisher= [[Arizona Public Service Company]] (APS) and [[GreenFuel Technologies Corporation]] (GFT)
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref> To be economical, some experts think that
algae farming for biofuels will have to be done next to power plants, where they can also help soak up the pollution.<ref name="Worldwatch" />
===Open Pond===
Open-pond systems for the most part have been given up for the cultivation of algae with high-oil content.<ref>Briggs, Michael. [http://www.unh.edu/p2/biodiesel/article_alge.html "Widescale Biodiesel Production from Algae"] UNH Biodiesel Group (2004). Retrieved May 26, 2004.</ref> Many believe that a major flaw of the [[Aquatic Species Program]] was the decision to focus their efforts exclusively on open-ponds; this makes the entire effort dependent upon the hardiness of the strain chosen, requiring it to be unnecessarily resilient in order to withstand wide swings in temperature and pH, and competition from invasive algae and bacteria. Open systems using a monoculture are also vulnerable to viral infection. The energy that a high-oil strain invests into the production of oil is energy that is not invested into the production of proteins or carbohydrates, usually resulting in the species being less hardy, or having a slower growth rate. Algal species with a lower oil content, not having to divert their energies away from growth, have an easier time in the harsher conditions of an open system.
Some open sewage ponds trial production has been done in [[Marlborough, New Zealand]].<ref name="BiodieselAlgaeSeweragePonds">{{cite web |last = |first = | year = 2006| url = http://www.renewableenergyaccess.com/rea/news/story?id=44928 |title = Biodiesel Made from Algae in Sewerage Ponds | work = |publisher = Renewable Energy Access | accessdate = 2007-01-31}}</ref>
==Algae Types==
A feasibility study using marine microalgae in a photobioreactor is being done by The International Research Consortium on Continental Margins at the [http://www.iu-bremen.de/ International University Bremen].<ref name="MarineInternationalUniversityBremen">{{cite web |last = |first = | year = 2006| url = http://www.irccm.de/greenhouse/project.html|title = Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Project at the International University Bremen | work = |publisher = The International Research Consortium on Continental Margins | accessdate = 2007-01-31}}</ref>
Research into algae for the mass-production of oil is mainly focused on [[microalgae]]; organisms capable of photosynthesis that are less than 0.4 mm in diameter, including the [[diatoms]] and [[cyanobacteria]]; as opposed to macroalgae, e.g. [[seaweed]]. However, some research is being done into using seaweeds for biofuels, probably due to the high availability of this resource.<ref name="Times Online">{{cite web |last = |first = | year = 2005| url = http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article522203.ece|title = Seaweed to breathe new life into fight against global warming | work = |publisher = The Times Online | accessdate = 2008-02-11}}</ref> This preference towards microalgae is due largely to its less complex structure, fast growth rate, and high oil content (for some species). Some commercial interests into large scale algal-cultivation systems are looking to tie in to existing infrastructures, such as coal power plants or sewage treatment facilities. This approach not only provides the raw materials for the system, such as CO<sub>2</sub> and nutrients; but it changes those wastes into resources.
[[Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation]] of [[New Zealand]] announced that it has produced its first sample of [[wikt:homegrown|homegrown]] bio-diesel fuel with algae sourced from local [[sewerage]] [[pond]]s.
The Department of Environmental Science at [[Ateneo de Manila University]] in the [[Philippines]], is working on producing biofuel from algae, using a local species of algae.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/storypage.aspx?StoryId=117670
| title= "Ateneo scientists working on algae as biodiesel source"
| last= Mañalac | first= Melissa M.
|date= 5/9/2008 |work= |publisher= ABS–CBN News Online, [[Philippines]]
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref>
[[National Biodiesel Board|NBB]]’s Feedstock Development program is addressing production of algae on the horizon to expand available material for biodiesel in a sustainable manner <ref>http://www.biodiesel.org/resources/sustainability/pdfs/Food%20and%20FuelApril162008.pdf</ref>.
{{Main|:Category:High lipid content microalgae|SERI microalgae culture collection}}
The following species listed are currently being studied for their suitability as a mass-oil producing crop, across various locations worldwide <ref>http://www.algaefuels.org/algae_FAQ.htm</ref> <ref>http://www.unapcaem.org/publication/bioenergy.pdf</ref> <ref>http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/03/carbon-seq/PDFs/158.pdf</ref>:
* ''[[Botryococcus braunii]]''
* ''[[Chlorella]]''
* ''[[Dunaliella tertiolecta]]''
* ''[[Gracilaria]]''
* ''[[Pleurochrysis carterae]]'' (also called CCMP647)<ref>[http://www.ecogenicsresearchcenter.org/prod02.htm Ecogenics Product 2<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> .
* ''[[Sargassum]]'', with 10 times the output volume of ''Gracilaria''.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2008/01/12/2003396760
| title= "Algae eyed as biofuel alternative"
| date= 2008-01-12 |publisher= ''[[Taipei Times]]''
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref>
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== Nutrients ==
Nutrients like [[nitrogen]] (N), [[phosphorus]] (P), and [[potassium]] (K), are important for plant growth and are essential parts of fertilizer. [[Silica]] and [[iron]], as well as several trace elements, may also be considered important marine nutrients as the lack of one can limit the growth of, or productivity in, an area.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.marinebio.net/marinescience/02ocean/swcomposition.htm
| title= Seawater Composition
| last= Anderson | first= Genny
|date= 2004-12-18 |work= |publisher=
| accessdate= 2008-06-18 }} </ref>
One company, Green Star Products, announced their development of a [[micronutrient]] formula to increase the growth rate of algae. According to the company, its formula can increase the daily growth rate by 34% and can double the amount of algae produced in one growth cycle.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.greenstarusa.com/news/08-05-22.html
| title= Green Star Announces Algae Breakthrough
|date= 2008-05-22 |publisher= Green Star Products, Inc
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref>
===Wastewater===
A possible nutrient source is [[waste water]] from the treatment of sewage, agricultural, or flood plain run-off, all currently major pollutants and health risks. However, this waste water cannot feed algae directly and must first be processed by bacteria, through [[anaerobic digestion]]. If waste water is not processed before it reaches the algae, it will contaminate the algae in the reactor, and at the very least, kill much of the desired algae strain. In [[biogas]] facilities, organic waste is often converted to a mixture of [[CO2|carbon dioxide]], [[methane]], and organic fertilizer. Organic fertilizer that comes out of [[digester]] is liquid, and nearly suitable for algae growth, but it must first be cleaned and sterilized.
At the [[Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution]] and the [[Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution]] the wastewater from domestic and industrial sources contain rich organic compounds is being used to accelerate the growth of algae.<ref name="merinews" />
Also the Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering of the [[University of Georgia]] is exploring microalgal biomass production using [[industrial wastewater]]<ref>http://openwetware.org/images/2/2e/09-Microalgal_Biomass_Production_Chinnasamy.pdf</ref> .
[[Algaewheel]], based in [[Indianapolis, Indiana]], presented a proposal to build a facility in [[Cedar Lake, Indiana]] that uses algae to treat [[municipal wastewater]] and uses the [[sludge]] [[byproduct]] to produce biofuel<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.algaewheel.com | title= Algaewheel — Wastewater Treatment Specialists
| accessdate= 2008-06-18 }} </ref><ref>
{{cite web
| url= http://www.ewire.com/display.cfm/Wire_ID/4808
| title= Indiana Company to Submit Proposal to Utilize Algae to Treat Wastewater and Create Renewable Energy
| date= 2008-06-12 |publisher= E-Wire
| accessdate= 2008-06-18 }} </ref>.
== Universities ==
US Universities working on Oil from Algae:
*Cal Poly State University, San Luis Obispo<ref> http://www.calpoly.edu</ref>.
*Montana State University<ref>http://www.physorg.com/news145801168.html</ref>.
*University of Virginia<ref> http://www.virginia.edu/uvatoday/newsRelease.php?id=5985</ref>.
*Arizona State University
*Ohio University
*Old Dominion University<ref> http://www.odu.edu/ao/research/vcerc/research/biodiesel.shtml</ref>.
*Brooklyn College<ref>http://www.dunaliella.org/jpolle/</ref>
*Colorado State University<ref>http://www.colostate.edu/features/biofuels-from-algae.aspx</ref>.
== Research and Promotion ==
The [[Ukraine]] Cabinet plans to produce biofuel of a special type of algae<ref>http://www.biofuels.ru/biodiesel/news/ukraine_to_produce_biofuel_of_algae/</ref>.
Also the [[CSIC]]´s [[Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis]] (Microalgae [[Biotechnology]] Group, in [[Sevilla]], Spain<ref>http://www.ibvf.cartuja.csic.es/</ref> is researching the algal fuels.
== Organizations ==
Algal Biomass Organization (ABO) is formed by [[Boeing Commercial Airplanes]], A2BE Carbon Capture Corporation <ref>[http://www.algaeatwork.com A2BE Carbon Capture, LLC | Home Page<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>, [[National Renewable Energy Labs]], [[Institution of Oceanography]], Benemann Associates <ref>[http://www.nrel.gov/biomass/pdfs/benemann.pdf Overview: Algae Oil to Biofuels<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>, Mont Vista Capital <ref>[http://www.montvista.com Mont Vista Capital<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and [[Montana State University]].
Global air carriers [[Air New Zealand]], [[Continental]], [[Virgin Atlantic Airways]], and biofuel technology developer [[UOP]] LLC, a [[Honeywell]] company, will be the first wave of aviation-related members, together with Boeing, to join Algal Biomass Organization.<ref>[http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/06/first-airlines.html Green Car Congress: First Airlines and UOP Join Algal Biomass Organization<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
== See also ==
* [[ABE fermentation]]
* [[Algology]]
* [[Aquatic Species Program]]
* [[Algaculture]]
* [[Biochemical engineering]]
* [[Biofuel#First generation biofuels]], [[Second generation biofuels]]
* [[Butanol fuel]]
* [[International Renewable Energy Alliance]]
* [[Ocean thermal energy conversion]]
* [[Phytoplankton]]
* [[Thermal depolymerization]]
==Further reading==
* [http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5303 Biofuels for Transport: Global Potential and Implications for Sustainable Agriculture and Energy in the 21st Century], authored by [[Worldwatch Institute]] and published by [[Earthscan]], 2007, [[ISBN]] 978-1-84407-422-8.
== External links ==
* [http://algaefuel.ws
* [http://algae.ws
* [http://www,algaefuelmaking.com
* [http://www.reuters.com/article/environmentNews/idUSTRE51I4X520090219 U.S., Canada to agree on energy pact: official -OTTAWA (Reuters)]
* [http://www.biofuelmaking.com
* [http://www.biopetroleo.com/english/index2.htm Bio Fuel Systems, The energy of the future]
* [http://www.algaefuel.org Algae Fuel research and development firm in California]
* [http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pdfs/biodiesel_from_algae.pdf Biodiesel from Algae] ([[NREL]]).
* [http://www.algalbiomass.org Algal Biomass Organization]
* [http://www.scribemedia.org/2007/11/15/glen-kertz-valcent-vertigro-algae-biofuel/ Video of Algae Farm]
** [http://www.algalbiomass.org/events/index.html Algae Biomass Summit].
* [http://www.eere.energy.gov/news/speeches/2007-11-14_algae.cfm Remarks to the Algae Biomass Summit] ([[EERE]]).
* [http://www.nationalalgaeassociation.com National Algae Association].
* [http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5739 Work on biofuels] and [http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5391 Better Than Corn? Algae Set to Beat Out Other Biofuel Feedstocks] ([[Worldwatch Institute]]).
* [http://www.biofuelsdatabase.org Biofuelsdatabase.org] ([[University of Minnesota]]).
* [http://www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/EFM/05-025sum.html Bio-Hydrocarbons from Algae -Impacts of temperature, light and salinity on algae growth] ([[RIRDC]]).
* [http://web.mit.edu/erc/spotlights/alg-all.html Algae system transforms greenhouse emissions into green fuel] ([[MIT]]/[[MITEI]]).
* [http://en.phyco.org/ Phyco, algal fuel wiki]
* [http://www.unh.edu/p2/biodiesel/article_alge.html Biodiesel Group] ([[University of New Hampshire]])
* [http://www.ceros.org/ National Defense Center of Excellence for Research in Ocean Sciences] (CEROS)
* [http://spg.ucsd.edu/algae/seminars.html Algal Fuel Initiative and Algal commercialization] ([[UCSD]])
* [http://algae.tcoalternativefuels.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/05/ronputt-algaeasabiodiesefeedstock.pdf Algae as a Biodiesel Feedstock: A Feasibility Assessment] ([[Center for Microfibrous Materials Manufacturing]], Department of Chemical Engineering, [[Auburn University]])
* [http://www.unh.edu/p2/biodiesel/article_alge.html Widescale Biodiesel Production from Algae] ([[University of New Hampshire]]).
* [http://www.geocities.com/krishalg/ Krishnamurthy Institute of Algology].
*[http://www.worldchanging.com/archives/007414.html worldchanging.com] ''Better Than Corn? Algae Set to Beat Out Other Biofuel Feedstocks''
=== Events, conferences and summits ===
* [http://www.algaebiofuelsummit.com Algae Biofuel Summit] ([http://www.biofuels.ru/biodiesel/news/international_summit_on_algae_biofuels_18th__19th_september_2008_new_delhi/ Report]).
* [http://www.solarbiofuels.org Solar Biofuel Conference].
* [http://www.globalenergy.es/index.php?page=introduccion&id=11 International Congress "Bio-mass and biofuels production from algae oil"] ([[University of Alicante]]).
* Algae World 2009 in Rotterdam on 27-28 April 2009. www.futureenergyevents.com/algae
=== Challenge ===
* [http://www.carbontrust.co.uk/technology/directedresearch/algae.htm Algae Biofuels Challenge] ([[The Carbon Trust]]).
=== News ===
* [http://news.cnet.com/greentech/?keyword=%22algae%22 Bionavitas speeds algae growth with 'light rods']
* [http://www.nualgi.blogspot.com/ Algal Fuel Blog]
* [http://www.eere.energy.gov/news/news_detail.cfm/news_id=11105 Department of Defense and NASA Look to Fuel Jets with Algal Fuels].
* [http://media.cleantech.com/2909/algal-biomass-organization-forms New Algae Trade Group Forms - Algal Biomass Organization (Cleantech.com)]
* [http://www.wsgr.com/wsgr/Display.aspx?SectionName=news/112607_algae.htm Inaugural Algae Biomass Summit a Success]
* [http://www.eere.energy.gov/news/speeches/2007-11-14_algae.cfm Department of Energy Remarks at Algae Biomass Summit]
* [http://knowledge.allianz.com/en/globalissues/climate_change/climate_solutions/algae_bioreactor_biofuel_arbon_sequestration.html Bioenergy from the Scum of the Earth: Biodiesel and Carbon Capture through Algae Bioreactor], Allianz Knowledge, June 2008
* [http://gas2.org/2008/03/29/first-algae-biodiesel-plant-goes-online-april-1-2008/ First Algae Biodiesel Plant Goes Online: April 1, 2008].
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/03/AR2008010303907.html A Promising Oil Alternative: Algae Energy] (''[[The Washington Post]]'')
* [http://www.eux.tv/article.aspx?articleId=16106 German scientists see use for algae in biofuels].
* [http://vintoncourier.1upmonitor.com/main.asp?SectionID=1&SubSectionID=7&ArticleID=645&TM=45163.16 Biodiesel production to begin soon].
* [http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/earth/4213775.html Pond-Powered Biofuels: Turning Algae into America's New Energy] (''[[Popular Mechanics]]'').
* [http://blog.wired.com/cars/2008/01/driving-around.html Solazyme hopes to begin mass-producing Soladiesel at a competitive price within three years].
* [http://www.cnn.com/2008/TECH/science/04/01/algae.oil/index.html Algae: 'The ultimate in renewable energy'] (''[[CNN]]'').
* [http://www.biofuelstp.eu/events.html Biofuels Media London Conference]
* [http://www.chathamdailynews.ca/ArticleDisplay.aspx?e=1075914 "A replacement for oil"]
* [http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/SC0605/S00030.htm World’s First Sample Of Homegrown Bio-Diesel From Algae, Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation]
* [http://www.brunswick.cc.nc.us/News/New%20Folder/biofule.htm Brunswick Community College (BCC) Creates Algae For Biodiesel].
[[Category:Algae biofuels| ]]
[[Category:Bioreactors]]
[[Category:High lipid content microalgae]]
__NOEDITSECTION__ __NOTOC__
'''Algae fuel''', also called '''algal fuel''', '''oilgae''',<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.oilgae.com/
| title= Oilgae.com – Oil from Algae! [Algae Fuel Making][AlgaeFuelMaking.Com]
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref> '''algaeoleum''' or '''third-generation biofuel''',<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://www.iata.org/pressroom/facts_figures/fact_sheets/alt_fuels.htm Alternative Fuels<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> is a [[biofuel]] from [[algae]].
The record [[oil price increases since 2003]], competing demands between foods and other biofuel sources and the [[world food crisis]] have ignited interest in [[algaculture]] (farming algae) for making [[vegetable oil]], [[biodiesel]], [[bioethanol]], [[biogasoline]], [[biomethanol]], [[biobutanol]] and other [[biofuel]]s. Among algal fuels' attractive characteristics: they do not affect [[fresh water]] resources,<ref name="gas2.0"> {{cite web
| url= http://gas2.org/2008/03/29/first-algae-biodiesel-plant-goes-online-april-1-2008/
| title= First Algae Biodiesel Plant Goes Online: April 1, 2008
| last= Cornell | first= Clayton B.
| date= 2008-03-29 |work= |publisher= Gas 2.0
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref> can be produced using ocean and [[wastewater]], and are [[biodegradable]] and relatively harmless to the environment if spilled.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.globeco.co.uk/Bio-diesel_news_0007.html
| title= "'Green Dream' Backed by MPs"
| month= January | year= 2003 |work= |publisher= ''[[Eastern Daily Press]]''
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref><ref>
[http://www.friendsofethanol.com/facts.html Friends of Ethanol.com biodegradable ethanol]
{{Dead link|date=June 2008}} </ref><ref>
{{cite web
| url= http://www.energy-arizona.org/archive/200708280001_low_cost_algae_production_system_introduced.php
| title= Low Cost Algae Production System Introduced
| date= 2007-08-28 |work= | publisher= Energy-Arizona
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref> Algae cost more per pound yet can yield over 30 times more energy per acre than other, second-generation biofuel crops.{{Fact|date=January 2009}} One biofuels company has claimed that algae can produce more oil in an area the size of a two-car garage than a football field of [[soybean]]s, because almost the entire algal organism can use sunlight to produce lipids, or oil.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.solixbiofuels.com/html/why_algae.html
| title= Why Algae?
|date= |year= |month= |format= |work= | publisher= Solix Biofuels
| accessdate= 2008-06-11 }} </ref> The [[United States Department of Energy]] estimates that if algae fuel replaced all the petroleum fuel in the United States, it would require 15,000 [[square mile]]s (40,000 [[square kilometer]]s), which is a few thousand square miles larger than [[Maryland]], or 1.3 [[Belgium]]s.<ref name="Hartman"/> This is less than 1/7th the area of [[corn]] harvested in the United States in 2000.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/ag101/cropmajor.html
| title= Major Crops Grown in the United States
|date= |year= |month= |format= |work= | publisher= [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]]
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref><ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.chathamdailynews.ca/ArticleDisplay.aspx?e=1075914
| title= "A replacement for oil"
| last= Dyer | first= Gwynne | authorlink= Gwynne Dyer
|date= 2008-06-17 | publisher= ''The Chatham Daily News''
| accessdate= 2008-06-18 }} </ref>
As of 2008, such fuels remain too expensive to replace other commercially available fuels, with the cost of various algae species typically between US$5–10 per kg dry weight.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} But several companies and government agencies are funding efforts to reduce capital and operating costs and make algae oil production commercially viable. See how it's made, [http://www.AlgaeFuelMaking.Com Algae Fuel] <ref name="Hartman"> {{cite web
| url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/03/AR2008010303907.html
| title= "A Promising Oil Alternative: Algae Energy"
| last= Hartman | first= Eviana
| date= 2008-01-06 | publisher= ''[[The Washington Post]]''
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref><ref>
{{cite web
| url= http://wwwlib.murdoch.edu.au/adt/pubfiles/adt-MU20050901.140745/02Whole.pdf
|format=PDF| title= {PhD thesis on algae production for bioenergy}
<!-- Actual title, author, date not included. -->
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
|date= |year= |month= |format= [[PDF]] |work= |publisher= [[Murdoch University]], [[Western Australia]]
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref>
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== History ==
{{See|Aquatic Species Program}}
The '''[[Aquatic Species Program]]''' launched in 1978. The [[United States|U.S.]] research program, funded by the [[United States Department of Energy|U.S. DoE]], was tasked with investigating the use of algae for the production of energy. The program initially focused efforts on the production of [[hydrogen]], however, shifted primary research to studying oil production in 1982. From 1982 through its culmination, the majority of the program research was focused on the production of transportation fuels, notably [[biodiesel]], from algae. In 1995, as part of the over-all efforts to lower budget demands, the DoE decided to end the program. Research stopped in 1996 and staff began compiling their research for publication. In July 1998, the DoE published the report [http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pdfs/biodiesel_from_algae.pdf "A Look Back at the U.S. Department of Energy's Aquatic Species Program: Biodiesel from Algae"]<ref>[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pdfs/biodiesel_from_algae.pdf A Look Back at the U.S. Department of Energy Aquatic Species Program: Biodiesel from Algae; Page 7]</ref>.
In 2008, [[Time Magazine]] voted [[Isaac Berzin]] one of the world's most influential persons for his ability to turn a dream of an oil-free future into a reality through [[GreenFuel]], founded in Boston in 2001.
== Factors==
Dry algae factor is the [[percentage]] of algae cells in relation with the media where it is cultured, e.g. if the dry algae factor is 50%, one would need 2 kg of wet algae (algae in the media) to get 1 kg of algae cells.
Lipid factor is the percentage of vegoil in relation with the algae cells needed to get it, i.e. if the algae lipid factor is 40%, one would need 2.5 kg of algae cells to get 1 kg of oil.{{Fact|date=March 2009}}
==Yield==
Yields (gallons of oil per acre per year) cover a vast range from 5,000 to 150,000. If all aspects of the cultivation are controlled - temperature, CO<sub>2</sub> levels, sunlight and nutrients (including carbohydrates as a food source), then extremely high yields can be obtained. Such variation can make calculations on which to base 'fuel the world' scenarios very difficult.
For example, Glen Kertz of Valcent Products http://www.valcent.net, claims that "algae can produce 100,000 gallons of oil per acre" per year. This relies on growing the algae in an entirely closed loop system.
More recently, Valcent have claimed 150,000 gallons may be possible
<ref name="valcent"> {{cite web
| url= http://www.valcent.net/s/NewsReleases.asp?ReportID=182076&_Type=News-Releases&_Title=Valcent-Products-Inc.-Develops-Clean-Green-Vertical-Bio-Reactor
| title= Valcent Products Inc,. - News Releases - Valcent Products Inc. Develops "Clean Green" Vertical Bio-Reactor - Sat Jan 17, 2009
}} </ref>; whereas in reality, their most recent actual reported yields were 33,000 gallons per acre per year<ref name="valcent2"> {{cite web
| url= http://www.valcent.net/s/NewsReleases.asp?ReportID=277235
| title= Valcent Products Inc,. - News Releases - Initial Data From the Vertigro Field Test Bed Plant Reports Average Production of 276 Tons of Algae Bio Mass on a Per Acre/Per Year Basis - Sat Jan 17, 2009
}} </ref>.
== Fuels ==
The vegoil algae product can then be harvested and converted into biodiesel; the algae’s [[carbohydrate]] content can be fermented into [[bioethanol]] and [[biobutanol]].<ref name="merinews"> {{cite web
| url= http://www.merinews.com/catFull.jsp?articleID=135399
| title= "Biofuels from industrial/domestic wastewater"
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
|date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=
| accessdate= 2008-06-11 }} </ref>
===Biodiesel===
Currently most research into efficient algal-oil production is being done in the private sector, but predictions from small scale production experiments bear out that using algae to produce [[biodiesel]] may be the only viable method by which to produce enough automotive fuel to replace current world diesel usage.<ref name="BiodieselFromAlgae">{{cite web |last = |first = | year = | url = http://www.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pdfs/biodiesel_from_algae.pdf |format=PDF|title = Biodiesel Production from Algae | work = |publisher = Department of Energy [[Aquatic Species Program]], National Renewable Energy Laboratory | accessdate = 2006-08-29}}</ref>
Microalgae have much faster growth-rates than terrestrial crops. The per unit area yield of oil from algae is estimated to be from between 5,000 to 50,000 gallons per acre, per year {{Fact|date=January 2009}}(4.6 to 18.4 l/m<sup>2</sup> per year); this is 7 to 30 times greater than the next best crop, [[Chinese tallow]] (699 gallons).<ref name="Biodiesel"> See [[Biodiesel]]. </ref>
Studies show that algae can produce up to 60% of their biomass in the form of oil. Because the cells grow in aqueous suspension where they have more efficient access to water, [[CO2]] and dissolved nutrients, microalgae are capable of producing large amounts of biomass and usable oil in either high rate algal ponds or photobioreactors. This oil can then be turned into [[biodiesel]] which could be sold for use in automobiles. The more efficient this process becomes the larger the profit that is turned by the company. Regional production of microalgae and processing into biofuels will provide economic benefits to rural communities.<ref name="SARDI AQUATIC SCIENCES">
{{cite web
| url= http://www.pir.sa.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/77055/microalgal_prod.pdf
|format=PDF| title= Microalgal Production SARDI AQUATIC SCIENCES
| last= | first= | date= |work= | publisher= [[Government of South Australia]]
| accessdate= 2008-11-03 }} </ref>
===Biobutanol ===
{{Main|Butanol fuel}}
Butanol can be made from [[algae]] or [[diatom]]s using only a solar powered [[biorefinery]]. This fuel has an energy density similar to [[gasoline]], and greater than that of either [[ethanol fuel|ethanol]] or [[methanol fuel|methanol]]. In most gasoline engines, butanol can be used in place of gasoline with no modifications. In several tests, butanol consumption is similar to that of gasoline, and when blended with gasoline, provides better performance and corrosion resistance than that of ethanol or [[E85]]<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/air/caaac/mstrs/March2007/Wolf.pdf]</ref>.
The green waste left over from the algae oil extraction can be used to produce butanol.
=== Biogasoline ===
Biogasoline can be produced from algae.
===Methane===
Through the use of algaculture grown organisms and cultures, various [[polymeric]] materials can be broken down into [[methane]].<ref name="MethanProductionFromAlgae">{{cite web |last = |first = | year = | url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7241e/w7241e0f.htm#TopOfPage |title = Methane production | work = |publisher = FAO, Agriculture Department | accessdate = 2006-08-29}}</ref>
===SVO===
The algal-oil feedstock that is used to produce biodiesel can also be used for fuel directly as "[[Straight Vegetable Oil]]", (SVO). The benefit of using the oil in this manner is that it doesn't require the additional energy needed for [[transesterification]], (processing the oil with an alcohol and a catalyst to produce biodiesel). The drawback is that it does require modifications to a normal diesel engine. Transesterified [[biodiesel]] can be run in an unmodified modern diesel engine, provided the engine is designed to use [[ultra-low sulfur diesel]], which, as of 2006, is the new diesel fuel standard in the United States.
===Hydrocracking to traditional transport fuels===
{{Main|Vegetable oil refining|Green crude}}
Vegetable oil can be used as feedstock for an [[oil refinery]] where methods like [[hydrocracking]] or [[hydrogenation]] can be used to transform the vegetable oil into standard fuels like [[gasoline]] and [[diesel]].<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.greencarcongress.com/2006/12/conocophillips_.html
| title= ConocoPhillips Begins Production of Renewable Diesel Fuel at Whitegate Refinery
| date= 2006-12-20 |work= | publisher= Green Car Congress
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref>
===Jet Fuel===
Twenty-five airlines went bust or stopped operations in the first six months of 2008 and more could fold as fuel prices soar, aviation industry association [[IATA]] has warned.<ref>[http://news.asiaone.com/News/Latest+News/Business/Story/A1Story20080708-75407.html More airlines fold as fuel prices soar: IATA<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Algal jet fuel can be used as alternative: IATA recognizes that aircraft are long lived and will be using kerosene or kerosene-type fuels for many years. It supports research, development & deployment into alternative fuels that produce less GHG emissions over their life cycle and do not compete for land with fuel crops. IATA’s goal is for its members to be using 10% alternative fuels by 2017.<ref name=autogenerated1 />
On January 8, 2009, [[Continental Airlines]] ran the first test for the first flight of an algae-fueled jet. The test was done using a twin-engine commercial jet consuming a 50/50 blend of biofuel and normal aircraft fuel. It was the first flight by a U.S. carrier to use an alternative fuel source on this specific type of aircraft. The flight from Houston's Bush International Airport completed a circuit over the Gulf of Mexico. The pilots on-board, executed a series of tests at 38,000 ft (11.6km), including a mid-flight engine shutdown. [[Larry Kellner]], chief executive of Continental Airlines, said they had tested a drop-in fuel which meant that no modification to the engine was required. The fuel was praised for having a low flash point and sufficiently low freezing point, issues that have been problematic for other bio-fuels. <ref>{{Cite news | title =First flight of algae-fuelled jet | publisher=[[BBC]] | date=2009-01-08 | accessdate=2009-01-09}}</ref>
==Algae cultivation==
Algae grow rapidly and can have a high percentage of lipids, or oils. They can double their mass several times a day and produce at least 15 times more oil per acre than alternatives such as rapeseed, palms, soybeans, or jatropha. Moreover, algae-growing facilities can be built on coastal land unsuitable for conventional agriculture.
They can grow 20 to 30 times faster than food crops.<ref name="Reuters"> {{cite web | url= http://www.reuters.com/article/environmentNews/idUSTRE5196HB20090210?pageNumber=2&virtualBrandChannel=0 | title= Can algae save the world - again?
| last= McDill | first= Stuart | date= 2009-02-10 |work= | publisher= [[Reuters]] | accessdate= 2009-02-10 }} </ref>
The hard part about algae production is growing the algae in a controlled way and harvesting it efficiently.
===PhotoBioreactors===
Most companies pursuing algae as a source of biofuels are pumping nutrient-[[wikt:laden|laden]] water through plastic tubes (called "[[bioreactor]]s" ) that are exposed to sunlight (and so called [[photobioreactor]]s or [[PBR]]).
Running a PBR is more difficult than a open [[pond]], and more costly.
Algae can also grow on marginal lands, such as in [[desert]] areas where the groundwater is saline, rather than utilise fresh water. <ref name="Worldwatch"> {{cite web | url= http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5391 | title= Better Than Corn? Algae Set to Beat Out Other Biofuel Feedstocks
| last= Herro | first= Alana | date= 2007-10-08 |work= | publisher= [[Worldwatch Institute]] | accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref>
The difficulties in efficient biodiesel production from algae lie in finding an algal strain with a high [[lipid]] content and fast growth rate that isn't too difficult to harvest, and a cost-effective cultivation system (i.e., type of photobioreactor) that is best suited to that strain. There is also a need to provide concentrated CO2 to turbocharge the production.
===Closed Loop System===
Another obstacle preventing widespread mass production of algae for biofuel production has been the equipment and structures needed to begin growing algae in large quantities. Diversified Energy Corporation (www.diversified-energy.com) has avoided this problem by taking a different approach and growing the algae in thin walled [[polyethylene]] tubing laid in troughs across a field. Maximum use of existing agriculture processes and hardware is the goal. XL Renewables, Inc is doing a similar approach by using conventional [[drip irrigation]] tubing, which can be incorporated into a normal agricultural environment.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.environmentalgraffiti.com/?p=237
| title= Will algae beat its competitors to become the king source of biofuels?
|author= 'Maryking' |last= |first=
| date= 2007-08-29 |work= |publisher= Environmental Graffiti
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref>
In a closed system (not exposed to open air) there is not the problem of contamination by other
organisms blown in by the air. The problem for a closed system is finding a cheap source of sterile [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>).
Several experimenters have found the CO<sub>2</sub> from a smokestack works well for growing algae.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0111/p01s03-sten.html
| title= "Algae — Like a Breath Mint for Smokestacks"
| last= Clayton | first= Mark |date= 2006-01-11 | publisher= ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]''
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref><ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.greenfuelonline.com/gf_files/GreenFuel%20Growth%20Rates.pdf
| title= Growth Rates of Emission-Fed Algae Show Viability of New Biomass Crop
|date= September 26 |year= |month= |format= PDF
| publisher= [[Arizona Public Service Company]] (APS) and [[GreenFuel Technologies Corporation]] (GFT)
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref> To be economical, some experts think that
algae farming for biofuels will have to be done next to power plants, where they can also help soak up the pollution.<ref name="Worldwatch" />
===Open Pond===
Open-pond systems for the most part have been given up for the cultivation of algae with high-oil content.<ref>Briggs, Michael. [http://www.unh.edu/p2/biodiesel/article_alge.html "Widescale Biodiesel Production from Algae"] UNH Biodiesel Group (2004). Retrieved May 26, 2004.</ref> Many believe that a major flaw of the [[Aquatic Species Program]] was the decision to focus their efforts exclusively on open-ponds; this makes the entire effort dependent upon the hardiness of the strain chosen, requiring it to be unnecessarily resilient in order to withstand wide swings in temperature and pH, and competition from invasive algae and bacteria. Open systems using a monoculture are also vulnerable to viral infection. The energy that a high-oil strain invests into the production of oil is energy that is not invested into the production of proteins or carbohydrates, usually resulting in the species being less hardy, or having a slower growth rate. Algal species with a lower oil content, not having to divert their energies away from growth, have an easier time in the harsher conditions of an open system.
Some open sewage ponds trial production has been done in [[Marlborough, New Zealand]].<ref name="BiodieselAlgaeSeweragePonds">{{cite web |last = |first = | year = 2006| url = http://www.renewableenergyaccess.com/rea/news/story?id=44928 |title = Biodiesel Made from Algae in Sewerage Ponds | work = |publisher = Renewable Energy Access | accessdate = 2007-01-31}}</ref>
==Algae Types==
A feasibility study using marine microalgae in a photobioreactor is being done by The International Research Consortium on Continental Margins at the [http://www.iu-bremen.de/ International University Bremen].<ref name="MarineInternationalUniversityBremen">{{cite web |last = |first = | year = 2006| url = http://www.irccm.de/greenhouse/project.html|title = Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Project at the International University Bremen | work = |publisher = The International Research Consortium on Continental Margins | accessdate = 2007-01-31}}</ref>
Research into algae for the mass-production of oil is mainly focused on [[microalgae]]; organisms capable of photosynthesis that are less than 0.4 mm in diameter, including the [[diatoms]] and [[cyanobacteria]]; as opposed to macroalgae, e.g. [[seaweed]]. However, some research is being done into using seaweeds for biofuels, probably due to the high availability of this resource.<ref name="Times Online">{{cite web |last = |first = | year = 2005| url = http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article522203.ece|title = Seaweed to breathe new life into fight against global warming | work = |publisher = The Times Online | accessdate = 2008-02-11}}</ref> This preference towards microalgae is due largely to its less complex structure, fast growth rate, and high oil content (for some species). Some commercial interests into large scale algal-cultivation systems are looking to tie in to existing infrastructures, such as coal power plants or sewage treatment facilities. This approach not only provides the raw materials for the system, such as CO<sub>2</sub> and nutrients; but it changes those wastes into resources.
[[Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation]] of [[New Zealand]] announced that it has produced its first sample of [[wikt:homegrown|homegrown]] bio-diesel fuel with algae sourced from local [[sewerage]] [[pond]]s.
The Department of Environmental Science at [[Ateneo de Manila University]] in the [[Philippines]], is working on producing biofuel from algae, using a local species of algae.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/storypage.aspx?StoryId=117670
| title= "Ateneo scientists working on algae as biodiesel source"
| last= Mañalac | first= Melissa M.
|date= 5/9/2008 |work= |publisher= ABS–CBN News Online, [[Philippines]]
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref>
[[National Biodiesel Board|NBB]]’s Feedstock Development program is addressing production of algae on the horizon to expand available material for biodiesel in a sustainable manner <ref>http://www.biodiesel.org/resources/sustainability/pdfs/Food%20and%20FuelApril162008.pdf</ref>.
{{Main|:Category:High lipid content microalgae|SERI microalgae culture collection}}
The following species listed are currently being studied for their suitability as a mass-oil producing crop, across various locations worldwide <ref>http://www.algaefuels.org/algae_FAQ.htm</ref> <ref>http://www.unapcaem.org/publication/bioenergy.pdf</ref> <ref>http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/03/carbon-seq/PDFs/158.pdf</ref>:
* ''[[Botryococcus braunii]]''
* ''[[Chlorella]]''
* ''[[Dunaliella tertiolecta]]''
* ''[[Gracilaria]]''
* ''[[Pleurochrysis carterae]]'' (also called CCMP647)<ref>[http://www.ecogenicsresearchcenter.org/prod02.htm Ecogenics Product 2<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> .
* ''[[Sargassum]]'', with 10 times the output volume of ''Gracilaria''.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2008/01/12/2003396760
| title= "Algae eyed as biofuel alternative"
| date= 2008-01-12 |publisher= ''[[Taipei Times]]''
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref>
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== Nutrients ==
Nutrients like [[nitrogen]] (N), [[phosphorus]] (P), and [[potassium]] (K), are important for plant growth and are essential parts of fertilizer. [[Silica]] and [[iron]], as well as several trace elements, may also be considered important marine nutrients as the lack of one can limit the growth of, or productivity in, an area.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.marinebio.net/marinescience/02ocean/swcomposition.htm
| title= Seawater Composition
| last= Anderson | first= Genny
|date= 2004-12-18 |work= |publisher=
| accessdate= 2008-06-18 }} </ref>
One company, Green Star Products, announced their development of a [[micronutrient]] formula to increase the growth rate of algae. According to the company, its formula can increase the daily growth rate by 34% and can double the amount of algae produced in one growth cycle.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.greenstarusa.com/news/08-05-22.html
| title= Green Star Announces Algae Breakthrough
|date= 2008-05-22 |publisher= Green Star Products, Inc
| accessdate= 2008-06-10 }} </ref>
===Wastewater===
A possible nutrient source is [[waste water]] from the treatment of sewage, agricultural, or flood plain run-off, all currently major pollutants and health risks. However, this waste water cannot feed algae directly and must first be processed by bacteria, through [[anaerobic digestion]]. If waste water is not processed before it reaches the algae, it will contaminate the algae in the reactor, and at the very least, kill much of the desired algae strain. In [[biogas]] facilities, organic waste is often converted to a mixture of [[CO2|carbon dioxide]], [[methane]], and organic fertilizer. Organic fertilizer that comes out of [[digester]] is liquid, and nearly suitable for algae growth, but it must first be cleaned and sterilized.
At the [[Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution]] and the [[Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution]] the wastewater from domestic and industrial sources contain rich organic compounds is being used to accelerate the growth of algae.<ref name="merinews" />
Also the Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering of the [[University of Georgia]] is exploring microalgal biomass production using [[industrial wastewater]]<ref>http://openwetware.org/images/2/2e/09-Microalgal_Biomass_Production_Chinnasamy.pdf</ref> .
[[Algaewheel]], based in [[Indianapolis, Indiana]], presented a proposal to build a facility in [[Cedar Lake, Indiana]] that uses algae to treat [[municipal wastewater]] and uses the [[sludge]] [[byproduct]] to produce biofuel<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.algaewheel.com | title= Algaewheel — Wastewater Treatment Specialists
| accessdate= 2008-06-18 }} </ref><ref>
{{cite web
| url= http://www.ewire.com/display.cfm/Wire_ID/4808
| title= Indiana Company to Submit Proposal to Utilize Algae to Treat Wastewater and Create Renewable Energy
| date= 2008-06-12 |publisher= E-Wire
| accessdate= 2008-06-18 }} </ref>.
== Universities ==
US Universities working on Oil from Algae:
*Cal Poly State University, San Luis Obispo<ref> http://www.calpoly.edu</ref>.
*Montana State University<ref>http://www.physorg.com/news145801168.html</ref>.
*University of Virginia<ref> http://www.virginia.edu/uvatoday/newsRelease.php?id=5985</ref>.
*Arizona State University
*Ohio University
*Old Dominion University<ref> http://www.odu.edu/ao/research/vcerc/research/biodiesel.shtml</ref>.
*Brooklyn College<ref>http://www.dunaliella.org/jpolle/</ref>
*Colorado State University<ref>http://www.colostate.edu/features/biofuels-from-algae.aspx</ref>.
== Research and Promotion ==
The [[Ukraine]] Cabinet plans to produce biofuel of a special type of algae<ref>http://www.biofuels.ru/biodiesel/news/ukraine_to_produce_biofuel_of_algae/</ref>.
Also the [[CSIC]]´s [[Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis]] (Microalgae [[Biotechnology]] Group, in [[Sevilla]], Spain<ref>http://www.ibvf.cartuja.csic.es/</ref> is researching the algal fuels.
== Organizations ==
Algal Biomass Organization (ABO) is formed by [[Boeing Commercial Airplanes]], A2BE Carbon Capture Corporation <ref>[http://www.algaeatwork.com A2BE Carbon Capture, LLC | Home Page<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>, [[National Renewable Energy Labs]], [[Institution of Oceanography]], Benemann Associates <ref>[http://www.nrel.gov/biomass/pdfs/benemann.pdf Overview: Algae Oil to Biofuels<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>, Mont Vista Capital <ref>[http://www.montvista.com Mont Vista Capital<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and [[Montana State University]].
Global air carriers [[Air New Zealand]], [[Continental]], [[Virgin Atlantic Airways]], and biofuel technology developer [[UOP]] LLC, a [[Honeywell]] company, will be the first wave of aviation-related members, together with Boeing, to join Algal Biomass Organization.<ref>[http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/06/first-airlines.html Green Car Congress: First Airlines and UOP Join Algal Biomass Organization<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
== See also ==
* [[ABE fermentation]]
* [[Algology]]
* [[Aquatic Species Program]]
* [[Algaculture]]
* [[Biochemical engineering]]
* [[Biofuel#First generation biofuels]], [[Second generation biofuels]]
* [[Butanol fuel]]
* [[International Renewable Energy Alliance]]
* [[Ocean thermal energy conversion]]
* [[Phytoplankton]]
* [[Thermal depolymerization]]
==Further reading==
* [http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5303 Biofuels for Transport: Global Potential and Implications for Sustainable Agriculture and Energy in the 21st Century], authored by [[Worldwatch Institute]] and published by [[Earthscan]], 2007, [[ISBN]] 978-1-84407-422-8.
== External links ==
* [http://algaefuel.ws
* [http://algae.ws
* [http://www,algaefuelmaking.com
* [http://www.reuters.com/article/environmentNews/idUSTRE51I4X520090219 U.S., Canada to agree on energy pact: official -OTTAWA (Reuters)]
* [http://www.biofuelmaking.com
* [http://www.biopetroleo.com/english/index2.htm Bio Fuel Systems, The energy of the future]
* [http://www.algaefuel.org Algae Fuel research and development firm in California]
* [http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pdfs/biodiesel_from_algae.pdf Biodiesel from Algae] ([[NREL]]).
* [http://www.algalbiomass.org Algal Biomass Organization]
* [http://www.scribemedia.org/2007/11/15/glen-kertz-valcent-vertigro-algae-biofuel/ Video of Algae Farm]
** [http://www.algalbiomass.org/events/index.html Algae Biomass Summit].
* [http://www.eere.energy.gov/news/speeches/2007-11-14_algae.cfm Remarks to the Algae Biomass Summit] ([[EERE]]).
* [http://www.nationalalgaeassociation.com National Algae Association].
* [http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5739 Work on biofuels] and [http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5391 Better Than Corn? Algae Set to Beat Out Other Biofuel Feedstocks] ([[Worldwatch Institute]]).
* [http://www.biofuelsdatabase.org Biofuelsdatabase.org] ([[University of Minnesota]]).
* [http://www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/EFM/05-025sum.html Bio-Hydrocarbons from Algae -Impacts of temperature, light and salinity on algae growth] ([[RIRDC]]).
* [http://web.mit.edu/erc/spotlights/alg-all.html Algae system transforms greenhouse emissions into green fuel] ([[MIT]]/[[MITEI]]).
* [http://en.phyco.org/ Phyco, algal fuel wiki]
* [http://www.unh.edu/p2/biodiesel/article_alge.html Biodiesel Group] ([[University of New Hampshire]])
* [http://www.ceros.org/ National Defense Center of Excellence for Research in Ocean Sciences] (CEROS)
* [http://spg.ucsd.edu/algae/seminars.html Algal Fuel Initiative and Algal commercialization] ([[UCSD]])
* [http://algae.tcoalternativefuels.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/05/ronputt-algaeasabiodiesefeedstock.pdf Algae as a Biodiesel Feedstock: A Feasibility Assessment] ([[Center for Microfibrous Materials Manufacturing]], Department of Chemical Engineering, [[Auburn University]])
* [http://www.unh.edu/p2/biodiesel/article_alge.html Widescale Biodiesel Production from Algae] ([[University of New Hampshire]]).
* [http://www.geocities.com/krishalg/ Krishnamurthy Institute of Algology].
*[http://www.worldchanging.com/archives/007414.html worldchanging.com] ''Better Than Corn? Algae Set to Beat Out Other Biofuel Feedstocks''
=== Events, conferences and summits ===
* [http://www.algaebiofuelsummit.com Algae Biofuel Summit] ([http://www.biofuels.ru/biodiesel/news/international_summit_on_algae_biofuels_18th__19th_september_2008_new_delhi/ Report]).
* [http://www.solarbiofuels.org Solar Biofuel Conference].
* [http://www.globalenergy.es/index.php?page=introduccion&id=11 International Congress "Bio-mass and biofuels production from algae oil"] ([[University of Alicante]]).
* Algae World 2009 in Rotterdam on 27-28 April 2009. www.futureenergyevents.com/algae
=== Challenge ===
* [http://www.carbontrust.co.uk/technology/directedresearch/algae.htm Algae Biofuels Challenge] ([[The Carbon Trust]]).
=== News ===
* [http://news.cnet.com/greentech/?keyword=%22algae%22 Bionavitas speeds algae growth with 'light rods']
* [http://www.nualgi.blogspot.com/ Algal Fuel Blog]
* [http://www.eere.energy.gov/news/news_detail.cfm/news_id=11105 Department of Defense and NASA Look to Fuel Jets with Algal Fuels].
* [http://media.cleantech.com/2909/algal-biomass-organization-forms New Algae Trade Group Forms - Algal Biomass Organization (Cleantech.com)]
* [http://www.wsgr.com/wsgr/Display.aspx?SectionName=news/112607_algae.htm Inaugural Algae Biomass Summit a Success]
* [http://www.eere.energy.gov/news/speeches/2007-11-14_algae.cfm Department of Energy Remarks at Algae Biomass Summit]
* [http://knowledge.allianz.com/en/globalissues/climate_change/climate_solutions/algae_bioreactor_biofuel_arbon_sequestration.html Bioenergy from the Scum of the Earth: Biodiesel and Carbon Capture through Algae Bioreactor], Allianz Knowledge, June 2008
* [http://gas2.org/2008/03/29/first-algae-biodiesel-plant-goes-online-april-1-2008/ First Algae Biodiesel Plant Goes Online: April 1, 2008].
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/03/AR2008010303907.html A Promising Oil Alternative: Algae Energy] (''[[The Washington Post]]'')
* [http://www.eux.tv/article.aspx?articleId=16106 German scientists see use for algae in biofuels].
* [http://vintoncourier.1upmonitor.com/main.asp?SectionID=1&SubSectionID=7&ArticleID=645&TM=45163.16 Biodiesel production to begin soon].
* [http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/earth/4213775.html Pond-Powered Biofuels: Turning Algae into America's New Energy] (''[[Popular Mechanics]]'').
* [http://blog.wired.com/cars/2008/01/driving-around.html Solazyme hopes to begin mass-producing Soladiesel at a competitive price within three years].
* [http://www.cnn.com/2008/TECH/science/04/01/algae.oil/index.html Algae: 'The ultimate in renewable energy'] (''[[CNN]]'').
* [http://www.biofuelstp.eu/events.html Biofuels Media London Conference]
* [http://www.chathamdailynews.ca/ArticleDisplay.aspx?e=1075914 "A replacement for oil"]
* [http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/SC0605/S00030.htm World’s First Sample Of Homegrown Bio-Diesel From Algae, Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation]
* [http://www.brunswick.cc.nc.us/News/New%20Folder/biofule.htm Brunswick Community College (BCC) Creates Algae For Biodiesel].
[[Category:Algae biofuels| ]]
[[Category:Bioreactors]]
[[Category:High lipid content microalgae]]
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