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==1.  Three Types of Reasoning==

==1.  Three Types of Reasoning==

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'''''(This section has been omitted from the present copy.)'''''

===1.1.  Types of Reasoning in Aristotle===

===1.1.  Types of Reasoning in Aristotle===

A higher order proposition is, very roughly speaking, a proposition about propositions.  If the original order of propositions is a class of indicator functions <math>F : X \to \mathbb{B},</math> then the next higher order of propositions consists of maps of the type <math>m : (X \to \mathbb{B}) \to \mathbb{B}.</math>

A higher order proposition is, very roughly speaking, a proposition about propositions.  If the original order of propositions is a class of indicator functions <math>F : X \to \mathbb{B},</math> then the next higher order of propositions consists of maps of the type <math>m : (X \to \mathbb{B}) \to \mathbb{B}.</math>

For example, consider the case where <math>X = B.</math>  Then there are exactly four propositions <math>F : \mathbb{B} \to \mathbb{B},</math> and exactly sixteen higher order propositions that are based on this set, all bearing the type <math>m : (\mathbb{B} \to \mathbb{B}) \to \mathbb{B}.</math>

For example, consider the case where <math>X = B.\!</math>  Then there are exactly four propositions <math>F : \mathbb{B} \to \mathbb{B},</math> and exactly sixteen higher order propositions that are based on this set, all bearing the type <math>m : (\mathbb{B} \to \mathbb{B}) \to \mathbb{B}.</math>

Table&nbsp;10 lists the sixteen higher order propositions about propositions on one boolean variable, organized in the following fashion:  Columns&nbsp;1 and 2 form a truth table for the four <math>F : \mathbb{B} \to \mathbb{B},</math> turned on its side from the way that one is most likely accustomed to see truth tables, with the row leaders in Column&nbsp;1 displaying the names of the functions <math>F_i,\!</math> for <math>i\!</math> = 1 to 4, while the entries in Column&nbsp;2 give the values of each function for the argument values that are listed in the corresponding column head.  Column&nbsp;3 displays one of the more usual expressions for the proposition in question.  The last sixteen columns are topped by a collection of conventional names for the higher order propositions, also known as the ''measures'' <math>m_j,\!</math> for <math>j\!</math> = 0 to 15, where the entries in the body of the Table record the values that each <math>m_j\!</math> assigns to each <math>F_i.\!</math>

Table&nbsp;10 lists the sixteen higher order propositions about propositions on one boolean variable, organized in the following fashion:  Columns&nbsp;1 and 2 form a truth table for the four <math>F : \mathbb{B} \to \mathbb{B},</math> turned on its side from the way that one is most likely accustomed to see truth tables, with the row leaders in Column&nbsp;1 displaying the names of the functions <math>F_i,\!</math> for <math>i = 1\ \operatorname{to}\ 4,\!</math> while the entries in Column&nbsp;2 give the values of each function for the argument values that are listed in the corresponding column head.  Column&nbsp;3 displays one of the more usual expressions for the proposition in question.  The last sixteen columns are topped by a collection of conventional names for the higher order propositions, also known as the ''measures'' <math>m_j,\!</math> for <math>j = 0\ \operatorname{to}\ 15,\!</math> where the entries in the body of the Table record the values that each <math>m_j\!</math> assigns to each <math>F_i.\!</math>

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