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| ==Notes & Queries & Discussion== | | ==Notes & Queries & Discussion== |
| [[User:Jon Awbrey|Jon Awbrey]] 07:14, 3 November 2008 (PST) | | [[User:Jon Awbrey|Jon Awbrey]] 07:14, 3 November 2008 (PST) |
| + | |
| + | ==Collection Of Source Materials (COSM)== |
| + | |
| + | <pre> |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | IDS -- DET, INF, LAS |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Determination |
| + | INF. Inquiry Into Information |
| + | LAS. Logic As Semiotic |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Determination |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 1 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Now that I have proved sufficiently that everything |
| + | | comes to pass according to determinate reasons, there |
| + | | cannot be any more difficulty over these principles |
| + | | of God's foreknowledge. Although these determinations |
| + | | do not compel, they cannot but be certain, and they |
| + | | foreshadow what shall happen. |
| + | | |
| + | | It is true that God sees all at once the whole sequence |
| + | | of this universe, when he chooses it, and that thus he |
| + | | has no need of the connexion of effects and causes in |
| + | | order to foresee these effects. But since his wisdom |
| + | | causes him to choose a sequence in perfect connexion, |
| + | | he cannot but see one part of the sequence in the other. |
| + | | |
| + | | It is one of the rules of my system of general harmony, |
| + | | 'that the present is big with the future', and that he |
| + | | who sees all sees in that which is that which shall be. |
| + | | |
| + | | What is more, I have proved conclusively that God sees in |
| + | | each portion of the universe the whole universe, owing to |
| + | | the perfect connexion of things. He is infinitely more |
| + | | discerning than Pythagoras, who judged the height of |
| + | | Hercules by the size of his footprint. There must |
| + | | therefore be no doubt that effects follow their |
| + | | causes determinately, in spite of contingency |
| + | | and even of freedom, which nevertheless exist |
| + | | together with certainty or determination. |
| + | | |
| + | | Gottfried Wilhelm (Freiherr von) Leibniz, |
| + | |'Theodicy: Essays on the Goodness of God, |
| + | | the Freedom of Man, and the Origin of Evil', |
| + | | Edited with an Introduction by Austin Farrer, |
| + | | Translated by E.M. Huggard from C.J. Gerhardt's |
| + | | Edition of the 'Collected Philosophical Works', |
| + | | 1875-1890. Routledge 1951. Open Court 1985. |
| + | | Paragraph 360, page 341. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 2 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Earlier this century in 'The Open Universe: An Argument for Indeterminism', |
| + | | Karl Popper wrote, "Common sense inclines, on the one hand, to assert that |
| + | | every event is caused by some preceding events, so that every event can be |
| + | | explained or predicted. ... On the other hand, ... common sense attributes |
| + | | to mature and sane human persons ... the ability to choose freely between |
| + | | alternative possibilities of acting." This "dilemma of determinism", as |
| + | | William James called it, is closely related to the meaning of time. Is the |
| + | | future given, or is it under perpetual construction? A profound dilemma for |
| + | | all of mankind, as time is the fundamental dimension of our existence. |
| + | | |
| + | | Ilya Prigogine (In Collaboration with Isabelle Stengers), |
| + | |'The End of Certainty: Time, Chaos, and the New Laws of Nature', |
| + | | The Free Press, New York, NY, 1997, p. 1. Originally published as: |
| + | |'La Fin des Certitudes', Éditions Odile Jacob, 1996. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 3 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Of triadic Being the multitude of forms |
| + | | is so terrific that I have usually shrunk |
| + | | from the task of enumerating them; and for |
| + | | the present purpose such an enumeration would |
| + | | be worse than superfluous: it would be a great |
| + | | inconvenience. In another paper, I intend to |
| + | | give the formal definition of a sign, which I |
| + | | have worked out by arduous and long labour. |
| + | | I will omit the explanation of it here. |
| + | | Suffice it to say that a sign endeavors |
| + | | to represent, in part at least, an Object, |
| + | | which is therefore in a sense the cause, or |
| + | | determinant, of the sign even if the sign |
| + | | represents its object falsely. But to say |
| + | | that it represents its Object implies that |
| + | | it affects a mind, and so affects it as, |
| + | | in some respect, to determine in that mind |
| + | | something that is mediately due to the Object. |
| + | | That determination of which the immediate cause, |
| + | | or determinant, is the Sign, and of which the |
| + | | mediate cause is the Object may be termed the |
| + | | 'Interpretant'. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Collected Papers', CP 6.347 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 4 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | That whatever action is brute, unintelligent, and unconcerned |
| + | | with the result of it is purely dyadic is either demonstrable |
| + | | or is too evident to be demonstrable. But in case that dyadic |
| + | | action is merely a member of a triadic action, then so far from |
| + | | its furnishing the least shade of presumption that all the action |
| + | | in the physical universe is dyadic, on the contrary, the entire and |
| + | | triadic action justifies a guess that there may be other and more marked |
| + | | examples in the universe of the triadic pattern. No sooner is the guess |
| + | | made than instances swarm upon us amply verifying it, and refuting the |
| + | | agnostic position; while others present new problems for our study. |
| + | | With the refutation of agnosticism, the agnostic is shown to be |
| + | | a superficial neophyte in philosophy, entitled at most to |
| + | | an occasional audience on special points, yet infinitely |
| + | | more respectable than those who seek to bolster up what |
| + | | is really true by sophistical arguments -- the traitors |
| + | | to truth that they are. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Collected Papers', CP 6.332 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 5 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Accurate writers have apparently made a distinction |
| + | | between the 'definite' and the 'determinate'. A subject |
| + | | is 'determinate' in respect to any character which inheres |
| + | | in it or is (universally and affirmatively) predicated of |
| + | | it, as well as in respect to the negative of such character, |
| + | | these being the very same respect. In all other respects it |
| + | | is 'indeterminate'. The 'definite' shall be defined presently. |
| + | | |
| + | | A sign (under which designation I place every kind of thought, |
| + | | and not alone external signs), that is in any respect objectively |
| + | | indeterminate (i.e., whose object is undetermined by the sign itself) |
| + | | is objectively 'general' in so far as it extends to the interpreter |
| + | | the privilege of carrying its determination further. 'Example': |
| + | | "Man is mortal." To the question, What man? the reply is that the |
| + | | proposition explicitly leaves it to you to apply its assertion to |
| + | | what man or men you will. |
| + | | |
| + | | A sign that is objectively indeterminate in any respect |
| + | | is objectively 'vague' in so far as it reserves further |
| + | | determination to be made in some other conceivable sign, |
| + | | or at least does not appoint the interpreter as its deputy |
| + | | in this office. 'Example': "A man whom I could mention seems |
| + | | to be a little conceited." The 'suggestion' here is that the |
| + | | man in view is the person addressed; but the utterer does not |
| + | | authorize such an interpretation or 'any' other application of |
| + | | what she says. She can still say, if she likes, that she does |
| + | | 'not' mean the person addressed. Every utterance naturally |
| + | | leaves the right of further exposition in the utterer; and |
| + | | therefore, in so far as a sign is indeterminate, it is vague, |
| + | | unless it is expressly or by a well-understood convention |
| + | | rendered general. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Collected Papers', CP 5.447 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 6 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Perhaps a more scientific pair of definitions would be |
| + | | that anything is 'general' in so far as the principle of |
| + | | the excluded middle does not apply to it and is 'vague' |
| + | | in so far as the principle of contradiction does not |
| + | | apply to it. |
| + | | |
| + | | Thus, although it is true that "Any proposition |
| + | | you please, 'once you have determined its identity', |
| + | | is either true or false"; yet 'so long as it remains |
| + | | indeterminate and so without identity', it need neither |
| + | | be true that any proposition you please is true, nor that |
| + | | any proposition you please is false. |
| + | | |
| + | | So likewise, while it is false that "A proposition 'whose |
| + | | identity I have determined' is both true and false", yet |
| + | | until it is determinate, it may be true that a proposition |
| + | | is true and that a proposition is false. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Collected Papers', CP 5.448 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 7 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | These remarks require supplementation. Determination, in general, is not |
| + | | defined at all; and the attempt at defining the determination of a subject |
| + | | with respect to a character only covers (or seems only to cover) explicit |
| + | | propositional determination. The incidental remark [5.447] to the effect |
| + | | that words whose meaning should be determinate would leave "no latitude of |
| + | | interpretation" is more satisfactory, since the context makes it plain that |
| + | | there must be no such latitude either for the interpreter or for the utterer. |
| + | | The explicitness of the words would leave the utterer no room for explanation |
| + | | of his meaning. This definition has the advantage of being applicable to a |
| + | | command, to a purpose, to a medieval substantial form; in short to anything |
| + | | capable of indeterminacy. (That everything indeterminate is of the nature |
| + | | of a sign can be proved inductively by imagining and analyzing instances of |
| + | | the surdest description. Thus, the indetermination of an event which should |
| + | | happen by pure chance without cause, 'sua sponte', as the Romans mythologically |
| + | | said, 'spontanément' in French (as if what was done of one's own motion were sure |
| + | | to be irrational), does not belong to the event -- say, an explosion -- 'per se', |
| + | | or as an explosion. Neither is it by virtue of any real relation: it is by |
| + | | virtue of a relation of reason. Now what is true by virtue of a relation of |
| + | | reason is representative, that is, is of the nature of a sign. A similar |
| + | | consideration applies to the indiscriminate shots and blows of a Kentucky |
| + | | free fight.) Even a future event can only be determinate in so far as it |
| + | | is a consequent. Now the concept of a consequent is a logical concept. |
| + | | It is derived from the concept of the conclusion of an argument. But an |
| + | | argument is a sign of the truth of its conclusion; its conclusion is the |
| + | | rational 'interpretation' of the sign. This is in the spirit of the Kantian |
| + | | doctrine that metaphysical concepts are logical concepts applied somewhat |
| + | | differently from their logical application. The difference, however, is |
| + | | not really as great as Kant represents it to be, and as he was obliged to |
| + | | represent it to be, owing to his mistaking the logical and metaphysical |
| + | | correspondents in almost every case. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Collected Papers', CP 5.448, note 1 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 8 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Another advantage of this definition is that it saves us |
| + | | from the blunder of thinking that a sign is indeterminate |
| + | | simply because there is much to which it makes no reference; |
| + | | that, for example, to say, "C.S. Peirce wrote this article", |
| + | | is indeterminate because it does not say what the color of |
| + | | the ink used was, who made the ink, how old the father of |
| + | | the ink-maker when his son was born, nor what the aspect |
| + | | of the planets was when that father was born. By making |
| + | | the definition turn upon the interpretation, all that is |
| + | | cut off. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Collected Papers', CP 5.448, note 1 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 9 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | At the same time, it is tolerably evident that the definition, |
| + | | as it stands, is not sufficiently explicit, and further, that |
| + | | at the present stage of our inquiry cannot be made altogether |
| + | | satisfactory. For what is the interpretation alluded to? |
| + | | To answer that convincingly would be either to establish |
| + | | or to refute the doctrine of pragmaticism. |
| + | | |
| + | | Still some explanations may be made. Every sign has a single object, |
| + | | though this single object may be a single set or a single continuum |
| + | | of objects. No general description can identify an object. But the |
| + | | common sense of the interpreter of the sign will assure him that the |
| + | | object must be one of a limited collection of objects. [Long example]. |
| + | | |
| + | | [And so] the latitude of interpretation which constitutes the |
| + | | indeterminacy of a sign must be understood as a latitude which |
| + | | might affect the achievement of a purpose. For two signs whose |
| + | | meanings are for all possible purposes equivalent are absolutely |
| + | | equivalent. This, to be sure, is rank pragmaticism; for a purpose |
| + | | is an affection of action. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Collected Papers', CP 5.448, note 1 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 10 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | The October remarks [i.e. those in the above paper] made the |
| + | | proper distinction between the two kinds of indeterminacy, viz.: |
| + | | indefiniteness and generality, of which the former consists in |
| + | | the sign's not sufficiently expressing itself to allow of an |
| + | | indubitable determinate interpretation, while the [latter] |
| + | | turns over to the interpreter the right to complete the |
| + | | determination as he please. |
| + | | |
| + | | It seems a strange thing, when one comes to ponder over it, that a sign |
| + | | should leave its interpreter to supply a part of its meaning; but the |
| + | | explanation of the phenomenon lies in the fact that the entire universe -- |
| + | | not merely the universe of existents, but all that wider universe, |
| + | | embracing the universe of existents as a part, the universe which |
| + | | we are all accustomed to refer to as "the truth" -- that all this |
| + | | universe is perfused with signs, if it is not composed exclusively |
| + | | of signs. Let us note this in passing as having a bearing upon the |
| + | | question of pragmaticism. |
| + | | |
| + | | The October remarks, with a view to brevity, omitted to mention that |
| + | | both indefiniteness and generality might primarily affect either the |
| + | | logical breadth or the logical depth of the sign to which it belongs. |
| + | | It now becomes pertinent to notice this. When we speak of the depth, |
| + | | or signification, of a sign we are resorting to hypostatic abstraction, |
| + | | that process whereby we regard a thought as a thing, make an interpretant |
| + | | sign the object of a sign. It has been a butt of ridicule since Molière's |
| + | | dying week, and the depth of a writer on philosophy can conveniently be |
| + | | sounded by his disposition to make fun of the basis of voluntary inhibition, |
| + | | which is the chief characteristic of mankind. For cautious thinkers will |
| + | | not be in haste to deride a kind of thinking that is evidently founded |
| + | | upon observation -- namely, upon observation of a sign. At any rate, |
| + | | whenever we speak of a predicate we are representing a thought as |
| + | | a thing, as a 'substantia', since the concepts of 'substance' and |
| + | | 'subject' are one, its concomitants only being different in the two |
| + | | cases. It is needful to remark this in the present connexion, because, |
| + | | were it not for hypostatic abstraction, there could be no generality of |
| + | | a predicate, since a sign which should make its interpreter its deputy to |
| + | | determine its signification at his pleasure would not signify anything, |
| + | | unless 'nothing' be its significate. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Collected Papers', CP 5.448, note 1 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 11 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Concepts, or terms, are, in logic, conceived to have |
| + | | 'subjective parts', being the narrower terms into which |
| + | | they are divisible, and 'definitive parts', which are the |
| + | | higher terms of which their definitions or descriptions are |
| + | | composed: these relationships constitute "quantity". |
| + | | |
| + | | This double way of regarding a class-term as a whole of parts |
| + | | is remarked by Aristotle in several places (e.g., 'Metaphysics', |
| + | | D. xxv. 1023 b22). It was familiar to logicians of every age. |
| + | | ... and it really seems to have been Kant who made these ideas |
| + | | pervade logic and who first expressly called them quantities. |
| + | | But the idea was old. Archbishop Thomson, W.D. Wilson, and |
| + | | C.S. Peirce endeavor to make out a third quantity of terms. |
| + | | The last calls his third quantity "information", and defines |
| + | | it as the "sum of synthetical propositions in which the symbol |
| + | | is subject or predicate", antecedent or consequent. The word |
| + | | "symbol" is here employed because this logician regards the |
| + | | quantities as belonging to propositions and to arguments, |
| + | | as well as to terms. |
| + | | |
| + | | A distinction of 'extensive' and 'comprehensive distinctness' is |
| + | | due to Scotus ('Opus Oxon.', I. ii. 3): namely, the usual effect |
| + | | upon a term of an increase of information will be either to increase |
| + | | its breadth without without diminishing its depth, or to increase its |
| + | | depth without diminishing its breadth. But the effect may be to show |
| + | | that the subjects to which the term was already known to be applicable |
| + | | include the entire breadth of another another term which had not been |
| + | | known to be so included. In that case, the first term has gained in |
| + | | 'extensive distinctness'. Or the effect may be to teach that the |
| + | | marks already known to be predicable of the term include the |
| + | | entire depth of another term not previously known to be so |
| + | | included, thus increasing the 'comprehensive distinctness' |
| + | | of the former term. |
| + | | |
| + | | The passage of thought from a broader to a narrower concept |
| + | | without change of information, and consequently with increase |
| + | | of depth, is called 'descent'; the reverse passage, 'ascent'. |
| + | | |
| + | | For various purposes, we often imagine our information to be less than |
| + | | it is. When this has the effect of diminishing the breadth of a term |
| + | | without increasing its depth, the change is called 'restriction'; |
| + | | just as when, by an increase of real information, a term gains |
| + | | breadth without losing depth, it is said to gain extension. |
| + | | This is, for example, a common effect of 'induction'. |
| + | | In such case, the effect is called generalization. |
| + | | |
| + | | A decrease of supposed information may have the effect |
| + | | of diminishing the depth of a term without increasing its |
| + | | information. This is often called 'abstraction'; but it is |
| + | | far better to call it 'prescission'; for the word 'abstraction' |
| + | | is wanted as the designation of an even far more important procedure, |
| + | | whereby a transitive element of thought is made substantive, as in the |
| + | | grammatical change of an adjective into an abstract noun. This may be |
| + | | called the principal engine of mathematical thought. |
| + | | |
| + | | When an increase of real information has the effect of increasing the |
| + | | depth of a term without diminishing the breadth, the proper word for the |
| + | | process is 'amplification'. In ordinary language, we are inaccurately said |
| + | | to 'specify', instead of to 'amplify', when we add to information in this way. |
| + | | The logical operation of forming a hypothesis often has this effect, which may, |
| + | | in such case, be called 'supposition'. Almost any increase of depth may be called |
| + | | 'determination'. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Collected Papers', CP 2.364 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 12 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Determine. |
| + | | |
| + | | The 'termination' is an ending, and a 'term' is |
| + | | a period (that comes to an end). 'Terminal' was |
| + | | first (and still may be) an adjective; The Latin |
| + | | noun 'terminus' has come directly into English: |
| + | | Latin 'terminare, terminat-', to end; 'terminus', |
| + | | boundary. From the limit itself, as in 'term' of |
| + | | office or imprisonment, 'term' grew to mean the |
| + | | limiting conditions (the 'terms' of an agreement); |
| + | | hence, the 'defining' (Latin 'finis', end; compare |
| + | | 'finance') of the idea, as in a 'term' of reproach; |
| + | | 'terminology'. To 'determine' is to set down limits |
| + | | or bounds to something, as when you 'determine' to |
| + | | perform a task, or as 'determinism' pictures limits |
| + | | set to man's freedom. 'Predetermined' follows this |
| + | | sense; but 'extermination' comes later. Otherwise, |
| + | | existence would be 'interminable'. |
| + | | |
| + | | Joseph T. Shipley, 'Dictionary of Word Origins', |
| + | | Rowman & Allanheld, Totowa, NJ, 1967, 1985. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 13 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | To determine means to make a circumstance different from what |
| + | | it might have been otherwise. For example, a drop of rain |
| + | | falling on a stone determines it to be wet, provided the |
| + | | stone may have been dry before. But if the fact of |
| + | | a whole shower half an hour previous is given, |
| + | | then one drop does not determine the stone to |
| + | | be wet; for it would be wet, at any rate. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, pp. 245-246. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 14 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Taking it for granted, then, that the inner and outer worlds are |
| + | | superposed throughout, without possibility of separation, let us |
| + | | now proceed to another point. There is a third world, besides the |
| + | | inner and the outer; and all three are coëxtensive and contain every |
| + | | experience. Suppose that we have an experience. That experience has |
| + | | three determinations -- three different references to a substratum or |
| + | | substrata, lying behind it and determining it. In the first place, |
| + | | it is a determination of an object external to ourselves -- we feel |
| + | | that it is so because it is extended in space. Thereby it is in the |
| + | | external world. In the second place, it is a determination of our own |
| + | | soul, it is 'our' experience; we feel that it is so because it lasts in |
| + | | time. Were it a flash of sensation, there for less than an instant, and |
| + | | then utterly gone from memory, we should not have time to think it ours. |
| + | | But while it lasts, and we reflect upon it, it enters into the internal |
| + | | world. We have now considered that experience as a determination of the |
| + | | modifying object and of the modified soul; now, I say, it may be and is |
| + | | naturally regarded as also a determination of an idea of the Universal |
| + | | mind; a preëxistent, archetypal Idea. Arithmetic, the law of number, |
| + | | 'was' before anything to be numbered or any mind to number had been |
| + | | created. It 'was' though it did not 'exist'. It was not 'a fact' |
| + | | nor a thought, but it was an unuttered word. 'En arche en o logos'. |
| + | | We feel an experience to be a determination of such an archetypal |
| + | | Logos, by virtue of its // 'depth of tone' / logical intension //, |
| + | | and thereby it is in the 'logical world'. |
| + | | |
| + | | Note the great difference between this view and Hegel's. |
| + | | Hegel says, logic is the science of the pure idea. I should |
| + | | describe it as the science of the laws of experience in virtue |
| + | | of its being a determination of the idea, or in other words as |
| + | | the formal science of the logical world. |
| + | | |
| + | | In this point of view, efforts to ascertain precisely how the |
| + | | intellect works in thinking, -- that is to say investigation |
| + | | of internal characterictics -- is no more to the purpose which |
| + | | logical writers as such, however vaguely have in view, than |
| + | | would be the investigation of external characteristics. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, pp. 168-169. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 15 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | But not to follow this subject too far, we have |
| + | | now established three species of representations: |
| + | | 'copies', 'signs', and 'symbols'; of the last of |
| + | | which only logic treats. A second approximation to |
| + | | a definition of it then will be, the science of symbols |
| + | | in general and as such. But this definition is still |
| + | | too broad; this might, indeed, form the definition of |
| + | | a certain science which would be a branch of Semiotic |
| + | | or the general science of representations which might |
| + | | be called Symbolistic, and of this logic would be |
| + | | a species. But logic only considers symbols |
| + | | from a particular point of view. |
| + | | |
| + | | A symbol in general and as such has three relations. |
| + | | The first is its relation to the pure Idea or Logos |
| + | | and this (from the analogy of the grammatical terms |
| + | | for the pronouns I, It, Thou) I call its relation |
| + | | of the first person, since it is its relation to |
| + | | its own essence. The second is its relation to |
| + | | the Consciousness as being thinkable, or to any |
| + | | language as being translatable, which I call its |
| + | | relation to the second person, since it refers to |
| + | | its power of appealing to a mind. The third is its |
| + | | relation to its object, which I call its relation to |
| + | | the third person or It. Every symbol is subject to |
| + | | three distinct systems of formal law as conditions |
| + | | of its taking up these three relations. If it |
| + | | violates either one of these three codes, the |
| + | | condition of its having either of the three |
| + | | relations, it ceases to be a symbol and makes |
| + | | 'nonsense'. Nonsense is that which has a certain |
| + | | resemblance to a symbol without being a symbol. But |
| + | | since it simulates the symbolic character it is usually |
| + | | only one of the three codes which it violates; at any rate, |
| + | | flagrantly. Hence there should be at least three different kinds |
| + | | of nonsense. And accordingly we remark that that we call nonsense |
| + | | meaningless, absurd, or quibbling, in different cases. If a symbol |
| + | | violates the conditions of its being a determination of the pure |
| + | | Idea or logos, it may be so nearly a determination thereof as |
| + | | to be perfectly intelligible. If for instance instead |
| + | | of 'I am' one should say 'I is'. |
| + | | 'I is' is in itself meaningless, |
| + | | it violates the conditions of its |
| + | | relation to the form it is meant |
| + | | to embody. Thus we see that the |
| + | | conditions of the relation of the |
| + | | first person are the laws of grammar. |
| + | | |
| + | | I will now take another example. I know my opinion is false, still I hold it. |
| + | | This is grammatical, but the difficulty is that it violates the conditions |
| + | | of its having an object. Observe that this is precisely the difficulty. |
| + | | It not only cannot be a determination of this or that object, but it |
| + | | cannot be a determination of any object, whatever. This is the |
| + | | whole difficulty. I say that, I receive contradictories into |
| + | | one opinion or symbolical representation; now this implies |
| + | | that it is a symbol of nothing. Here is another example: |
| + | | This very proposition is false. This is a proposition to |
| + | | which the law of excluded middle namely that every symbol |
| + | | must be false or true, does not apply. For if it is false it |
| + | | is thereby true. And if not false it is thereby not true. Now |
| + | | why does not this law apply to this proposition. Simply because it |
| + | | does itself state that it has no object. It talks of itself and only |
| + | | of itself and has no external relation whatever. These examples show |
| + | | that logical laws only hold good, as conditions of a symbol's having |
| + | | an object. The fact that it has often been called the science of |
| + | | truth confirms this view. |
| + | | |
| + | | I define logic therefore as the science of the conditions |
| + | | which enable symbols in general to refer to objects. |
| + | | |
| + | | At the same time 'symbolistic' in general gives a trivium consisting of |
| + | | Universal Grammar, Logic, and Universal Rhetoric, using this last term to |
| + | | signify the science of the formal conditions of intelligibility of symbols. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, pp. 174-175. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 16 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | The consideration of this imperfect datum leads us to make |
| + | | a fundamental observation; namely, that the problem how we |
| + | | can make an induction is one and the same with the problem how |
| + | | we can make any general statement, with reason; for there is |
| + | | no way left in which such a statement can originate except from |
| + | | induction or pure fiction. Hereby, we strike down at once all |
| + | | attempts at solving the problem as involve the supposition of |
| + | | a major premiss as a datum. Such explanations merely show |
| + | | that we can arrive at one general statement by deduction |
| + | | from another, while they leave the real question, |
| + | | untouched. The peculiar merit of Aristotle's |
| + | | theory is that after the objectionable portion |
| + | | of it is swept away and after it has thereby been |
| + | | left utterly powerless to account for any certainty |
| + | | or even probability in the inference from induction, |
| + | | we still retain these 'forms' which show what the |
| + | | 'actual process' is. |
| + | | |
| + | | And what is this process? We have in the apodictic conclusion, |
| + | | some most extraordinary observation, as for example that a great |
| + | | number of animals -- namely neat and deer, feed only upon vegetables. |
| + | | This proposition, be it remarked, need not have had any generality; if |
| + | | the animals observed instead of being all 'neat' had been so very various |
| + | | that we knew not what to say of them except that they were 'herbivora' and |
| + | | 'cloven-footed', the effect would have been to render the argument simply |
| + | | irresistable. In addition to this datum, we have another; namely that |
| + | | these same animals are all cloven-footed. Now it would not be so very |
| + | | strange that all cloven-footed animals should be herbivora; animals |
| + | | of a particular structure very likely may use a particular food. |
| + | | But if this be indeed so, then all the marvel of the conclusion |
| + | | is explained away. So in order to avoid a marvel which must in |
| + | | some form be accepted, we are led to believe what is easy to |
| + | | believe though it is entirely uncertain. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, p. 179. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 17 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | There is a large class of reasonings which are neither deductive nor inductive. |
| + | | I mean the inference of a cause from its effect or reasoning to a physical hypothesis. |
| + | | I call this reasoning 'à posteriori'. If I reason that certain conduct is wise because |
| + | | it has a character which belongs 'only' to wise things, I reason 'à priori'. If I think |
| + | | it is wise because it once turned out to be wise, that is if I infer that it is wise on |
| + | | this occasion because it was wise on that occasion, I reason inductively. But if |
| + | | I think it is wise because a wise man does it, I then make the pure hypothesis |
| + | | that he does it because he is wise, and I reason 'à posteriori'. The form |
| + | | this reasoning assumes, is that of an inference of a minor premiss in |
| + | | any of the figures. The following is an example. |
| + | | |
| + | | Light gives certain fringes. | Ether waves give certain fringes. |
| + | | Ether waves gives these fringes. | Light is ether waves. |
| + | | .: Light is ether waves. | .: Light gives these fringes. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, p. 180. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 18 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | We come now to the question, what is the 'rationale' of these three kinds |
| + | | of reasoning. And first let us understand precisely what we intend by this. |
| + | | It is clear then that it is none of our business to inquire in what manner we |
| + | | think when we reason, for we have already seen that logic is wholly separate |
| + | | from psychology. What we seek is an explicit statement of the logical ground |
| + | | of these different kinds of inference. This logical ground will have two parts, |
| + | | 1st the ground of possibility and 2nd the ground of proceedure. The ground of |
| + | | possibility is the special property of symbols upon which every inference of |
| + | | a certain kind rests. The ground of proceedure is the property of symbols |
| + | | which makes a certain inference possible from certain premisses. The |
| + | | ground of possibility must be both discovered and demonstrated, fully. |
| + | | The ground of proceedure must be exhibited in outline, but it is not |
| + | | requisite to fill up all the details of this subject, especially |
| + | | as that would lead us too far into the technicalities of logic. |
| + | | |
| + | | As the three kinds of reasoning are entirely distinct, each must have |
| + | | a different ground of possibility; and the principle of each kind must |
| + | | be proved by that same kind of inference for it would be absurd to attempt |
| + | | to rest it on a weaker kind of inference and to rest it on one as strong as |
| + | | itself would be simply to reduce it to that other kind of reasoning. Moreover, |
| + | | these principles must be logical principles because we do not seek any other |
| + | | ground now, than a logical ground. As logical principles, they will not |
| + | | relate to the symbol in itself or in its relation to equivalent symbols |
| + | | but wholly in its relation to what it symbolizes. In other words |
| + | | it will relate to the symbolization of objects. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, p. 183. |
| + | | |
| + | | Chrales Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 19 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Now all symbolization is of three objects, at once; the first is a possible thing, |
| + | | the second is a possible form, the third is a possible symbol. It will be objected |
| + | | that the two latter are not properly objects. We have hitherto regarded the symbol |
| + | | as 'standing for' the thing, as a concrete determination of its form, and addressing |
| + | | a symbol; and it is true that it is only by referring to a possible thing that a |
| + | | symbol has an objective relation, it is only by bearing in it a form that it has |
| + | | any subjective relation, and it is only by equaling another symbol that it has any |
| + | | tuistical relation. But this objective relation once given to a symbol is at once |
| + | | applicable to all to which it necessarily refers; and this is shown by the fact |
| + | | of our regarding every symbol as 'connotative' as well as 'denotative', and by our |
| + | | regarding one word as standing for another whenever we endeavor to clear up a little |
| + | | obscurity of meaning. And the reason that this is so is that the possible symbol and |
| + | | the possible form to which a symbol is related each relate also to that thing which |
| + | | is its immediate object. Things, forms, and symbols, therefore, are symbolized in |
| + | | every symbolization. And this being so, it is natural to suppose that our three |
| + | | principles of inference which we know already refer to some three objects of |
| + | | symbolization, refer to these. |
| + | | |
| + | | That such really is the case admits of proof. For the principle of inference 'à priori' |
| + | | must be established 'à priori'; that is by reasoning analytically from determinant to |
| + | | determinate, in other words from definition. But this can only be applied to an object |
| + | | whose characteristics depend upon its definition. Now of most things the definition |
| + | | depends upon the character, the definition of a symbol alone determines its character. |
| + | | Hence the principle of inference 'à priori' must relate to symbols. The principle of |
| + | | inference 'à posteriori' must be established 'à posteriori', that is by reasoning from |
| + | | determinate to determinant. This is only applicable to that which is determined by what |
| + | | it determines; in other words, to that which is only subject to the truth and falsehood |
| + | | which affects its determinant and which in itself is mere 'zero'. But this is only true |
| + | | of pure forms. Hence the principle of inference 'à posteriori' must relate to pure form. |
| + | | The principle of inductive inference must be established inductively; that is by reasoning |
| + | | from parts to whole. This is only applicable to that whose whole is given in the sum of the |
| + | | parts; and this is only the case with things. Hence the principle of inductive inference |
| + | | must relate to things. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, pp. 183-184. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 20 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Is there any knowledge 'à priori'? All our thought begins with |
| + | | experience, the mind furnishes no material for thought whatever. |
| + | | This is acknowledged by all the philosophers with whom we need concern |
| + | | ourselves at all. The mind only works over the materials furnished by |
| + | | sense; no dream is so strange but that all its elementary parts are |
| + | | reminiscences of appearance, the collocation of these alone are we |
| + | | capable of originating. In one sense, therefore, everything may |
| + | | be said to be inferred from experience; everything that we know, |
| + | | or think or guess or make up may be said to be inferred by some |
| + | | process valid or fallacious from the impressions of sense. But |
| + | | though everything in this loose sense is inferred from experience, |
| + | | yet everything does not require experience to be as it is in order |
| + | | to afford data for the inference. Give me the relations of 'any' |
| + | | geometrical intuition you please and you give me the data for proving |
| + | | all the propositions of geometry. In other words, everything is not |
| + | | determined by experience. And this admits of proof. For suppose |
| + | | there may be universal and necessary judgements; as for example |
| + | | the moon must be made of green cheese. But there is no element of |
| + | | necessity in an impression of sense for necessity implies that things |
| + | | would be the same as they are were certain accidental circumstances |
| + | | different from what they are. I may here note that it is very common |
| + | | to misstate this point, as though the necessity here intended were a |
| + | | necessity of thinking. But it is not meant to say that what we feel |
| + | | compelled to think we are absolutely compelled to think, as this would |
| + | | imply; but that if we think a fact 'must be' we cannot have observed |
| + | | that it 'must be'. The principle is thus reduced to an analytical one. |
| + | | In the same way universality implies that the event would be the same |
| + | | were the things within certain limits different from what they are. |
| + | | Hence universal and necessary elements of experience are not determined |
| + | | from without. But are they, therefore, determined from within? Are they |
| + | | determined at all? Does not this very conception of determination imply |
| + | | causality and thus beg the whole question of causality at the very outset? |
| + | | Not at all. The determination here meant is not real determination but |
| + | | logical determination. A cognition 'à priori' is one which any experience |
| + | | contains reason for and therefore which no experience determines but which |
| + | | contains elements such as the mind introduces in working up the materials |
| + | | of sense, or rather as they are not new materials, they are the working up. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, pp. 246-247. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 21 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | The terms 'à priori' and 'à posteriori' in their ancient sense |
| + | | denote respectively reasoning from an antecedent to a consequent |
| + | | and from a consequent to an antecedent. Thus suppose we know that |
| + | | every incompetent general will meet with defeat. Then if we reason |
| + | | that because a given general is incompetent that he must meet with |
| + | | a defeat, we reason 'à priori'; but if we reason that because a |
| + | | general is defeated he was a bad one, we reason 'à posteriori'. |
| + | | |
| + | | Kant however uses these terms in another and derived sense. He did not |
| + | | entirely originate their modern use, for his contemporaries were already |
| + | | beginning to apply them in the same way, but he fixed their 'meaning' in |
| + | | the new application and made them household words in subsequent philosophy. |
| + | | |
| + | | If one judges that a house falls down on the testimony of his eyesight |
| + | | then it is clear that he reasons 'à posteriori' because he infers the |
| + | | fact from an effect of it on his eyes. If he judges that a house falls |
| + | | because he knows that the props have been removed he reasons 'à priori'; |
| + | | yet not purely 'à priori' for his premisses were obtained from experience. |
| + | | But if he infers it from axioms innate in the constitution of the mind, |
| + | | he may be said to reason purely 'à priori'. All this had been said |
| + | | previously to Kant. I will now state how he modified the meaning |
| + | | of the terms while preserving this application of them. What is |
| + | | known from experience must be known 'à posteriori', because the |
| + | | thought is determined from without. To determine means to make |
| + | | a circumstance different from what it might have been otherwise. |
| + | | For example, a drop of rain falling on a stone determines it to |
| + | | be wet, provided the stone may have been dry before. But if the |
| + | | fact of a whole shower half an hour previous is given, then one |
| + | | drop does not determine the stone to be wet; for it would be wet, |
| + | | at any rate. Now, it is said that the results of experience are |
| + | | inferred 'à posteriori', for this reason that they are determined |
| + | | from without the mind by something not previously present to it; |
| + | | being so determined their determinants or //causes/reasons// are |
| + | | not present to the mind and of course could not be reasoned from. |
| + | | Hence, a thought determined from without by something not in |
| + | | consciousness even implicitly is inferred 'à posteriori'. |
| + | | |
| + | | Kant, accordingly, uses the term 'à posteriori' as meaning what |
| + | | is determined from without. The term 'à priori' he uses to mean |
| + | | determined from within or involved implicitly in the whole of what |
| + | | is present to consciousness (or in a conception which is the logical |
| + | | condition of what is in consciousness). The twist given to the words |
| + | | is so slight that their application remains almost exactly the same. |
| + | | If there is any change it is this. A primary belief is 'à priori' |
| + | | according to Kant; for it is determined from within. But it is not |
| + | | 'inferred' at all and therefore neither of the terms is applicable in |
| + | | their ancient sense. And yet as an explicit judgment it is inferred |
| + | | and inferred 'à priori'. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, pp. 245-246. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Note 22 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Though I talk of forms as something independent of the mind, |
| + | | I only mean that the mind so conceives them and that that |
| + | | conception is valid. I thus say that all the qualities |
| + | | we know are determinations of the pure idea. But that |
| + | | we have any further knowledge of the idea or that |
| + | | this is to know it in itself I entirely deny. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, p. 256. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | INF. Inquiry Into Information |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | INF. Note 1 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | I begin yet another excursion into C.S. Peirce's concept of information. |
| + | Because Peirce's concept of determination is so deeply involved in his |
| + | concept of information, it may be useful to keep these links close by: |
| + | |
| + | DET. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/thread.html#2197 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | INF. Note 2 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | In order to understand how these principles of 'à posteriori' |
| + | | and inductive inference can be put into practice, we must |
| + | | consider by itself the substitution of one symbol for |
| + | | another. Symbols are alterable and comparable in |
| + | | three ways. In the first place they may denote |
| + | | more or fewer possible differing things; in this |
| + | | regard they are said to have 'extension'. In the |
| + | | second place, they may imply more or less as to |
| + | | the quality of these things; in this respect |
| + | | they are said to have 'intension'. In the |
| + | | third place they may involve more or less |
| + | | real knowledge; in this respect they |
| + | | have 'information' and 'distinctness'. |
| + | | Logical writers generally speak only |
| + | | of extension and intension and Kant |
| + | | has laid down the law that these |
| + | | quantities are inverse in respect |
| + | | of each other. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, p. 187. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | INF. Note 3 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | I am going to run through the series of concrete illustrations |
| + | that Peirce lays out to explain his take on the conceptions of |
| + | extension, intension, and information. It is a mite long, but |
| + | helps better than anything else I know to bring what Peirce is |
| + | talking about down to earth. For ease of comprehension I will |
| + | divide this extended paragraph into more moderate-sized chunks. |
| + | |
| + | | For example, take 'cat'; now increase the extension of that greatly -- |
| + | | 'cat' or 'rabbit' or 'dog'; now apply to this extended class the |
| + | | additional intension 'feline'; -- 'feline cat' or 'feline rabbit' |
| + | | or 'feline dog' is equal to 'cat' again. This law holds good as |
| + | | long as the information remains constant, but when this is changed |
| + | | the relation is changed. Thus 'cats' are before we know about them |
| + | | separable into 'blue cats" and 'cats not blue' of which classes 'cats' |
| + | | is the most extensive and least intensive. But afterwards we find out |
| + | | that one of those classes cannot exist; so that 'cats' increases its |
| + | | intension to equal 'cats not blue' while 'cats not blue' increases its |
| + | | extension to equal 'cats'. |
| + | | |
| + | | Again, to give a better case, 'rational animal' is divisible into 'mortal rational animal' |
| + | | and 'immortal rational animal'; but upon information we find that no 'rational animal' |
| + | | is 'immortal' and this fact is symbolized in the word 'man'. 'Man', therefore, has at |
| + | | once the extension of 'rational animal' with the intension of 'mortal rational animal', |
| + | | and far more beside, because it involves more 'information' than either of the previous |
| + | | symbols. 'Man' is more 'distinct' than 'rational animal', and more 'formal' than |
| + | | 'mortal rational animal'. |
| + | | |
| + | | Now of two statements both of which are true, it is obvious that |
| + | | that contains the most truth which contains the most information. |
| + | | If two predicates of the same intension, therefore, are true of |
| + | | the same subject, the most formal one contains the most truth. |
| + | | |
| + | | Thus, it is better to say Socrates is a man, than to say Socrates |
| + | | is an animal who is rational mortal risible biped &c. because |
| + | | the former contains all the last and in addition it forms |
| + | | the synthesis of the whole under a definite 'form'. |
| + | | |
| + | | On the other hand if the same predicate is applicable |
| + | | to two equivalent subjects, that one is to be preferred |
| + | | which is the most 'distinct'; thus it conveys more truth |
| + | | to say All men are born of women, than All rational animals |
| + | | are born of women, because the former has at once as much |
| + | | extension as the latter, and a much closer reference to |
| + | | the things spoken of. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, pp. 187-188. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | INF. Note 4 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Let us now take the two statements, S is P, T is P; |
| + | | let us suppose that T is much more distinct than S and |
| + | | that it is also more extensive. But we 'know' that S is P. |
| + | | Now if T were not more extensive than S, T is P would contain |
| + | | more truth than S is P; being more extensive it 'may' contain |
| + | | more truth and it may also introduce a falsehood. Which of these |
| + | | probabilities is the greatest? T by being more extensive becomes |
| + | | less intensive; it is the intension which introduces truth and the |
| + | | extension which introduces falsehood. If therefore T increases the |
| + | | intension of S more than its extension, T is to be preferred to S; |
| + | | otherwise not. Now this is the case of induction. Which contains |
| + | | most truth, 'neat' and 'deer' are herbivora, or cloven-footed |
| + | | animals are herbivora? |
| + | | |
| + | | In the two statements, S is P, S is Q, let Q be at once more 'formal' and |
| + | | more 'intensive' than P; and suppose we only 'know' that S is P. In this |
| + | | case the increase of formality gives a chance of additional truth and the |
| + | | increase of intension a chance of error. If the extension of Q is more |
| + | | increased than than its intension, then S is Q is likely to contain more |
| + | | truth than S is P and 'vice versa'. This is the case of 'à posteriori' |
| + | | reasoning. We have for instance to choose between |
| + | | |
| + | | Light gives fringes of such and such a description |
| + | | |
| + | | and |
| + | | |
| + | | Light is ether-waves. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, pp. 188-189. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | INF. Note 5 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Thus the process of information disturbs the relations |
| + | | of extension and comprehension for a moment and the |
| + | | class which results from the equivalence of two |
| + | | others has a greater intension than one and |
| + | | a greater extension than the other. Hence, |
| + | | we may conveniently alter the formula for the |
| + | | relations of extension and comprehension; thus, |
| + | | instead of saying that one is the reciprocal of |
| + | | the other, or |
| + | | |
| + | | comprehension x extension = constant, |
| + | | |
| + | | we may say |
| + | | |
| + | | comprehension x extension = information. |
| + | | |
| + | | We see then that all symbols besides their denotative and connotative objects have another; |
| + | | their informative object. The denotative object is the total of possible things denoted. |
| + | | The connotative object is the total of symbols translated or implied. The informative |
| + | | object is the total of forms manifested and is measured by the amount of intension the |
| + | | term has, over and above what is necessary for limiting its extension. For example, |
| + | | the denotative object of 'man' is such collections of matter the word knows while it |
| + | | knows them, i.e., while they are organized. The connotative object of 'man' is the |
| + | | total form which the word expresses. The informative object of 'man' is the total |
| + | | fact which it embodies; or the value of the conception which is its equivalent |
| + | | symbol. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, p. 276. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | INF. Note 6 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | The difference between connotation, denotation, and information |
| + | | supplies the basis for another division of terms and propositions; |
| + | | a division which is related to the one we have just considered in |
| + | | precisely the same way as the division of syllogism into 3 figures |
| + | | is related to the division into Deduction, Induction, and Hypothesis. |
| + | | |
| + | | Every symbol which has connotation and denotation has also information. |
| + | | For by the denotative character of a symbol, I understand application |
| + | | to objects implied in the symbol itself. The existence therefore of |
| + | | objects of a certain kind is implied in every connotative denotative |
| + | | symbol; and this is information. |
| + | | |
| + | | Now there are certain imperfect or false symbols produced by the combination |
| + | | of true symbols which have lost either their denotation or their connotation. |
| + | | When symbols are combined together in extension as for example in the compound |
| + | | term "cats and dogs", their sum possesses denotation but no connotation or at least |
| + | | no connotation which determines their denotation. Hence, such terms, which I prefer |
| + | | to call 'enumerative' terms, have no information and it remains unknown whether there |
| + | | be any real kind corresponding to cats and dogs taken together. On the other hand |
| + | | when symbols are combined together in comprehension as for example in the compound |
| + | | "tailed men" the product possesses connotation but no denotation, it not being |
| + | | therein implied that there may be any 'tailed men'. Such conjunctive terms |
| + | | have therefore no information. Thirdly there are names purporting to be of |
| + | | real kinds as 'men'; and these are perfect symbols. |
| + | | |
| + | | Enumerative terms are not truly symbols but only signs; and |
| + | | Conjunctive terms are copies; but these copies and signs must |
| + | | be considered in symbolistic because they are composed of symbols. |
| + | | |
| + | | When an enumerative term forms the subject of a grammatical proposition, |
| + | | as when we say "cats and dogs have tails", there is no logical unity in the |
| + | | proposition at all. Logically, therefore, it is two propositions and not one. |
| + | | The same is the case when a conjunctive proposition forms the predicate of a |
| + | | sentence; for to say that "hens are feathered bipeds" is simply to predicate |
| + | | two unconnected marks of them. |
| + | | |
| + | | When an enumerative term as such is the predicate of a proposition, that proposition |
| + | | cannot be a denotative one, for a denotative proposition is one which merely analyzes |
| + | | the denotation of its predicate, but the denotation of an enumerative term is analyzed |
| + | | in the term itself; hence if an enumerative term as such were the predicate of a |
| + | | proposition that proposition would be equivalent in meaning to its own predicate. |
| + | | On the other hand, if a conjunctive term as such is the subject of a proposition, |
| + | | that proposition cannot be connotative, for the connotation of a conjunctive term |
| + | | is already analyzed in the term itself, and a connotative proposition does no more |
| + | | than analyze the connotation of its subject. Thus we have |
| + | | |
| + | | Conjunctive Simple Enumerative |
| + | | |
| + | | propositions so related to |
| + | | |
| + | | Denotative Informative Connotative |
| + | | |
| + | | propositions that what is on the left hand |
| + | | of one line cannot be on the right hand of |
| + | | the other. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, pp. 278-279. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | INF. Note 7 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | We are now in a condition to discuss the question |
| + | | of the grounds of scientific inference. This |
| + | | problem naturally divides itself into parts: |
| + | | |
| + | | 1st To state and prove the principles |
| + | | upon which the possibility in general |
| + | | of each kind of inference depends, |
| + | | |
| + | | 2nd To state and prove the rules |
| + | | for making inferences |
| + | | in particular cases. |
| + | | |
| + | | The first point I shall discuss in the remainder of this lecture; |
| + | | the second I shall scarcely be able to touch upon in these lectures. |
| + | | |
| + | | Inference in general obviously supposes symbolization; and |
| + | | all symbolization is inference. For every symbol as we have seen |
| + | | contains information. And in the last lecture we saw that all kinds |
| + | | of information involve inference. Inference, then, is symbolization. |
| + | | They are the same notions. Now we have already analyzed the notion |
| + | | of a 'symbol', and we have found that it depends upon the possibility |
| + | | of representations acquiring a nature, that is to say an immediate |
| + | | representative power. This principle is therefore the ground |
| + | | of inference in general. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, pp. 279-280. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | INF. Note 8 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | But there are three distinct kinds of inference; |
| + | | inconvertible and different in their conception. |
| + | | There must, therefore, be three different principles |
| + | | to serve for their grounds. These three principles |
| + | | must also be indemonstrable; that is to say, each |
| + | | of them so far as it can be proved must be proved |
| + | | by means of that kind of inference of which it |
| + | | is the ground. For if the principle of either |
| + | | kind of inference were proved by another kind |
| + | | of inference, the former kind of inference |
| + | | would be reduced to the latter; and since |
| + | | the different kinds of inference are in |
| + | | all respects different this cannot be. |
| + | | You will say that it is no proof of |
| + | | these principles at all to support |
| + | | them by that which they themselves |
| + | | support. But I take it for granted |
| + | | at the outset, as I said at the beginning |
| + | | of my first lecture, that induction and hypothesis |
| + | | have their own validity. The question before us is 'why' |
| + | | they are valid. The principles, therefore, of which we |
| + | | are in search, are not to be used to prove that the |
| + | | three kinds of inference are valid, but only to |
| + | | show how they come to be valid, and the proof |
| + | | of them consists in showing that they |
| + | | determine the validity of the |
| + | | three kinds of inference. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, p. 280. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | INF. Note 9 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | But these three principles must have this in common that they refer to 'symbolization' |
| + | | for they are principles of inference which is symbolization. As grounds of the |
| + | | possibility of inference they must refer to the possibility of symbolization or |
| + | | symbolizability. And as logical principles they must relate to the reference |
| + | | of symbols to objects; for logic has been defined as the science of the |
| + | | general conditions of the relations of symbols to objects. But as three |
| + | | different principles they must state three different relations of |
| + | | symbols to objects. Now we already found that a symbol has three |
| + | | different relations to objects; namely, connotation, denotation, |
| + | | and information, which are its relations to the object considered |
| + | | as a thing, a form, and an equivalent representation. Hence, |
| + | | it is obvious that these three principles must relate to |
| + | | the symbolizability of things, of forms, and of symbols. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, pp. 280-281. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | INF. Note 10 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Our next business is to find out which is which. |
| + | | For this purpose we must consider that each principle |
| + | | is to be proved by the kind of inference which it supports. |
| + | | |
| + | | The ground of deductive inference then must be established deductively; |
| + | | that is by reasoning from determinant to determinate, or in other words |
| + | | by reasoning from definition. But this kind of reasoning can only be |
| + | | applied to an object whose character depends upon its definition. |
| + | | Now of most objects it is the definition which depends upon the |
| + | | character; and so the definition must therefore itself rest on |
| + | | induction or hypothesis. But the principle of deduction must |
| + | | rest on nothing but deduction, and therefore it must relate |
| + | | to something whose character depends upon its definition. |
| + | | Now the only objects of which this is true are symbols; |
| + | | they indeed are created by their definition; while |
| + | | neither forms nor things are. Hence, the principle |
| + | | of deduction must relate to the symbolizability of |
| + | | symbols. |
| + | | |
| + | | The principle of hypothetic inference must be established hypothetically, |
| + | | that is by reasoning from determinate to determinant. Now it is clear that |
| + | | this kind of reasoning is applicable only to that which is determined by what |
| + | | it determines; or that which is only subject to truth and falsehood so far as |
| + | | its determinate is, and is thus of itself pure 'zero'. Now this is the case with |
| + | | nothing whatever except the pure forms; they indeed are what they are only in so |
| + | | far as they determine some symbol or object. Hence the principle of hypothetic |
| + | | inference must relate to the symbolizability of forms. |
| + | | |
| + | | The principle of inductive inference must be established inductively, |
| + | | that is by reasoning from parts to whole. This kind of reasoning can |
| + | | apply only to those objects whose parts collectively are their whole. |
| + | | Now of symbols this is not true. If I write 'man' here and 'dog' here |
| + | | that does not constitute the symbol of 'man and dog', for symbols have |
| + | | to be reduced to the unity of symbolization which Kant calls the unity |
| + | | of apperception and unless this be indicated by some special mark they |
| + | | do not constitute a whole. In the same way forms have to determine the |
| + | | same matter before they are added; if the curtains are green and the |
| + | | wainscot yellow that does not make a 'yellow-green'. But with things |
| + | | it is altogether different; wrench the blade and handle of a knife |
| + | | apart and the form of the knife has dissappeared but they are the |
| + | | same thing -- the same matter -- that they were before. Hence, |
| + | | the principle of induction must relate to the symbolizability |
| + | | of things. |
| + | | |
| + | | All these principles must as principles be universal. |
| + | | Hence they are as follows: -- |
| + | | |
| + | | All things, forms, symbols are symbolizable. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, pp. 281-282. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | INF. Note 11 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | I am forwarding this follow-up message from Joe Ransdell |
| + | about a reference that is relevant to the discussion of |
| + | inference, information, inquiry, and so on, especially |
| + | with regard to the topics of generality and vagueness, |
| + | and their further relationships to various notions of |
| + | determination, extension, and so-called "comprehension" |
| + | (the slightly more correct term for what most of us will |
| + | probably continue to discuss under the more popular common |
| + | name of "intension"). |
| + | |
| + | | Subj: Re: Inquiry Into Inquiry |
| + | | Date: Sat, 28 Jul 2001 13:59:17 -0500 |
| + | | From: Joseph Ransdell <ransdell@door.net> |
| + | | To: Arisbe <arisbe@stderr.org> |
| + | | |
| + | | I forgot to mention, in my message about Peirce's information theory, |
| + | | that the paper referrred to is available on-line at: |
| + | | |
| + | | http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/web/writings/v2/w2/w2_06/v2_06.htm |
| + | | |
| + | | It appears in Vol. 2 of the 'Collected Papers' and Vol. 2 of the 'Writings' as well. |
| + | | The 'Collected Papers' version is better, though, since it appends some additional |
| + | | material from 1893, and is followed also by Peirce and Ladd-Franklin's entry on |
| + | | "Signification and Application" in the 1902 Baldwin's Dictionary. |
| + | | |
| + | | Joe Ransdell |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | LAS. Logic As Semiotic |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | LAS. Note 1 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Logic, in its general sense, is, as I believe I have shown, only another |
| + | | name for 'semiotic' (Greek 'semeiotike'), the quasi-necessary, or formal, |
| + | | doctrine of signs. By describing the doctrine as "quasi-necessary", or |
| + | | formal, I mean that we observe the characters of such signs as we know, |
| + | | and from such an observation, by a process which I will not object to |
| + | | naming Abstraction, we are led to statements, eminently fallible, and |
| + | | therefore in one sense by no means necessary, as to what 'must be' the |
| + | | characters of all signs used by a "scientific" intelligence, that is to |
| + | | say, by an intelligence capable of learning by experience. As to that |
| + | | process of abstraction, it is itself a sort of observation. |
| + | | |
| + | | The faculty which I call abstractive observation is one which |
| + | | ordinary people perfectly recognize, but for which the theories |
| + | | of philosophers sometimes hardly leave room. It is a familiar |
| + | | experience to every human being to wish for something quite |
| + | | beyond his present means, and to follow that wish by the |
| + | | question, "Should I wish for that thing just the same, if |
| + | | I had ample means to gratify it?" To answer that question, |
| + | | he searches his heart, and in doing so makes what I term an |
| + | | abstractive observation. He makes in his imagination a sort |
| + | | of skeleton diagram, or outline sketch, of himself, considers |
| + | | what modifications the hypothetical state of things would |
| + | | require to be made in that picture, and then examines it, |
| + | | that is, 'observes' what he has imagined, to see whether |
| + | | the same ardent desire is there to bediscerned. By such |
| + | | a process, which is at bottom very much like mathematical |
| + | | reasoning, we can reach conclusions as to what 'would be' |
| + | | true of signs in all cases, so long as the intelligence |
| + | | using them was scientific. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, 'Collected Papers', CP 2.227. |
| + | | Eds. Note. "From an unidentified fragment, c. 1897". |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | LAS. Note 2 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Logic is an analysis of forms not a study of the mind. |
| + | | It tells 'why' an inference follows not 'how' it arises |
| + | | in the mind. It is the business therefore of the logician |
| + | | to break up complicated inferences from numerous premisses |
| + | | into the simplest possible parts and not to leave them |
| + | | as they are. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, p. 217. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | LAS. Note 3 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Some reasons having now been given for adopting the |
| + | | unpsychological conception of the science, let us now |
| + | | seek to make this conception sufficiently distinct to |
| + | | serve for a definition of logic. For this purpose we |
| + | | must bring our 'logos' from the abstract to the concrete, |
| + | | from the absolute to the dependent. There is no science |
| + | | of absolutes. The metaphysical logos is no more to us |
| + | | than the metaphysical soul or the metaphysical matter. |
| + | | To the absolute Idea or Logos, the dependent or relative |
| + | | 'word' corresponds. The word 'horse', is thought of as |
| + | | being a word though it be unwritten, unsaid, and unthought. |
| + | | It is true, it must be considered as having been thought; |
| + | | but it need not have been thought by the same mind which |
| + | | regards it as being a word. I can think of a word in |
| + | | Feejee, though I can attach no definite articulation to |
| + | | it, and do not guess what it would be like. Such a word, |
| + | | abstract but not absolute, is no more than the genus of |
| + | | all symbols having the same meaning. We can also think |
| + | | of the higher genus which contains words of all meanings. |
| + | | A first approximation to a definition, then, will be that |
| + | | logic is the science of representations in general, whether |
| + | | mental or material. This definition coincides with Locke's. |
| + | | It is however too wide for logic does not treat of all kinds |
| + | | of representations. The resemblance of a portrait to its |
| + | | object, for example, is not logical truth. It is necessary, |
| + | | therefore, to divide the genus representation according to |
| + | | the different ways in which it may accord with its object. |
| + | | |
| + | | The first and simplest kind of truth is the resemblance of a copy. |
| + | | It may be roughly stated to consist in a sameness of predicates. |
| + | | Leibniz would say that carried to its highest point, it would |
| + | | destroy itself by becoming identity. Whether that is true or |
| + | | not, all known resemblance has a limit. Hence, resemblance |
| + | | is always partial truth. On the other hand, no two things |
| + | | are so different as to resemble each other in no particular. |
| + | | Such a case is supposed in the proverb that Dreams go by |
| + | | contraries, -- an absurd notion, since concretes have no |
| + | | contraries. A false copy is one which claims to resemble |
| + | | an object which it does not resemble. But this never fully |
| + | | occurs, for two reasons; in the first place, the falsehood |
| + | | does not lie in the copy itself but in the 'claim' which is |
| + | | made for it, in the 'superscription' for instance; in the |
| + | | second place, as there must be 'some' resemblance between |
| + | | the copy and its object, this falsehood cannot be entire. |
| + | | Hence, there is no absolute truth or falsehood of copies. |
| + | | Now logical representations have absolute truth and |
| + | | falsehood as we know 'à posteriori' from the law |
| + | | of excluded middle. Hence, logic does not treat |
| + | | of copies. |
| + | | |
| + | | The second kind of truth, is the denotation of a sign, |
| + | | according to a previous convention. A child's name, for |
| + | | example, by a convention made at baptism, denotes that person. |
| + | | Signs may be plural but they cannot have genuine generality because |
| + | | each of the objects to which they refer must have been fixed upon |
| + | | by convention. It is true that we may agree that a certain sign |
| + | | shall denote a certain individual conception, an individual act |
| + | | of an individual mind, and that conception may stand for all |
| + | | conceptions resembling it; but in this case, the generality |
| + | | belongs to the 'conception' and not to the sign. Signs, |
| + | | therefore, in this narrow sense are not treated of in |
| + | | logic, because logic deals only with general terms. |
| + | | |
| + | | The third kind of truth or accordance of a representation |
| + | | with its object, is that which inheres in the very nature |
| + | | of the representation whether that nature be original or |
| + | | acquired. Such a representation I name a 'symbol'. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, pp. 169-170. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | LAS. Note 4 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | How often do we think of the thing in algebra? |
| + | | When we use the symbol of multiplication we do not |
| + | | even think out the conception of multiplication, we think |
| + | | merely of the laws of that symbol, which coincide with the |
| + | | laws of the conception, and what is more to the purpose, |
| + | | coincide with the laws of multiplication in the object. |
| + | | Now, I ask, how is it that anything can be done with |
| + | | a symbol, without reflecting upon the conception, |
| + | | much less imagining the object that belongs to it? |
| + | | It is simply because the symbol has acquired a nature, |
| + | | which may be described thus, that when it is brought before |
| + | | the mind certain principles of its use -- whether reflected on |
| + | | or not -- by association immediately regulate the action of the |
| + | | mind; and these may be regarded as laws of the symbol itself |
| + | | which it cannot 'as a symbol' transgress. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, p. 173. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | LAS. Note 5 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Finally, these principles as principles applying not to this or that |
| + | | symbol, form, thing, but to all equally, must be universal. And as |
| + | | grounds of possibility they must state what is possible. Now what |
| + | | is the universal principle of the possible symbolization of symbols? |
| + | | It is that all symbols are symbolizable. And the other principles |
| + | | must predicate the same thing of forms and things. |
| + | | |
| + | | These, then, are the three principles of inference. Our next business is |
| + | | to demonstrate their truth. But before doing so, let me repeat that these |
| + | | principles do not serve to prove that the kinds of inference are valid, since |
| + | | their own proof, on the contrary, must rest on the assumption of that validity. |
| + | | Their use is only to show what the condition of that validity is. Hence, the |
| + | | only proof of the truth of these principles is this; to show, that if these |
| + | | principles be admitted as sufficient, and if the validity of the several kinds |
| + | | of inference be also admitted, that then the truth of these principles follows |
| + | | by the respective kinds of inference which each establishes. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, pp. 184-185. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | LAS. Note 6 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | To prove then, first, that all symbols are symbolizable. |
| + | | Every syllogism consists of three propositions with two terms |
| + | | each, a subject and a predicate, and three terms in all each term |
| + | | being used twice. It is obvious that one term must occur both as |
| + | | subject and predicate. Now a predicate is a symbol of its subject. |
| + | | Hence in all reasoning 'à priori' a symbol must be symbolized. |
| + | | But as reasoning 'à priori' is possible about a statement |
| + | | without reference to its predicate, all symbols must be |
| + | | symbolizable. |
| + | | |
| + | | 2nd To prove that all forms are symbolizable. |
| + | | Since this proposition relates to pure form it is |
| + | | sufficient to show that its consequences are true. |
| + | | Now the consequence will be that if a symbol of any |
| + | | object be given, but if this symbol does not adequately |
| + | | represent any form then another symbol more formal may |
| + | | always be substituted for it, or in other words as soon |
| + | | as we know what form it ought to symbolize the symbol may |
| + | | be so changed as to symbolize that form. But this process |
| + | | is a description of inference 'à posteriori'. Thus in the |
| + | | example relating to light; the symbol of "giving such and |
| + | | such phenomena" which is altogether inadequate to express a |
| + | | form is replaced by "ether-waves" which is much more formal. |
| + | | The consequence then of the universal symbolization of forms |
| + | | is the inference 'à posteriori', and there is no truth or |
| + | | falsehood in the principle except what appears in the |
| + | | consequence. Hence, the consequence being valid, |
| + | | the principle may be accepted. |
| + | | |
| + | | 3rd To prove that all things may be symbolized. |
| + | | If we have a proposition, the subject of which is not |
| + | | properly a symbol of the thing it signifies; then in case |
| + | | everything may be symbolized, it is possible to replace this |
| + | | subject by another which is true of it and which does symbolize |
| + | | the subject. But this process is inductive inference. Thus having |
| + | | observed of a great variety of animals that they all eat herbs, if I |
| + | | substitute for this subject which is not a true symbol, the symbol |
| + | | "cloven-footed animals" which is true of these animals, I make an |
| + | | induction. Accordingly I must acknowledge that this principle |
| + | | leads to induction; and as it is a principle of objects, |
| + | | what is true of its subalterns is true of it; and since |
| + | | induction is always possible and valid, this principle |
| + | | is true. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, pp. 185-186. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | LAS. Note 7 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | Having discovered and demonstrated the grounds of the possibility of |
| + | | the three inferences, let us take a preliminary glance at the manner in |
| + | | which additions to these principles may make them grounds of proceedure. |
| + | | |
| + | | The principle of inference 'à priori' has been apodictically demonstrated; |
| + | | the principle of inductive inference has been shown upon sufficient evidence |
| + | | to be true; the principle of inference 'à posteriori' has been shown to be one |
| + | | which nothing can contradict. These three degrees of modality in the principles of |
| + | | the three inferences show the amount of certainty which each is capable of affording. |
| + | | Inference 'à priori' is as we all know the only apodictic proceedure; yet no one |
| + | | thinks of questioning a good induction; while inference 'à posteriori' is |
| + | | proverbially uncertain. 'Hypotheses non fingo', said Newton; striving |
| + | | to place his theory on a firm inductive basis. Yet provisionally we |
| + | | must make hypotheses; we start with them; the baby when he lies |
| + | | turning his fingers before his eyes is testing a hypothesis he has |
| + | | already formed, as to the connection of touch and sight. Apodictic |
| + | | reasoning can only be applied to the manipulation of our knowledge; |
| + | | it never can extend it. So that it is an induction which eventually |
| + | | settles every question of science; and nine-tenths of the inferences |
| + | | we draw in any hour not of study are of this kind. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, p. 186. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | LAS. Note 8 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | The first distinction we found it necessary to draw -- |
| + | | the first set of conceptions we have to signalize -- |
| + | | forms a triad |
| + | | |
| + | | Thing Representation Form. |
| + | | |
| + | | Kant you remember distinguishes in all mental representations the |
| + | | matter and the form. The distinction here is slightly different. |
| + | | In the first place, I do not use the word 'Representation' as |
| + | | a translation of the German 'Vorstellung' which is the general |
| + | | term for any product of the cognitive power. Representation, |
| + | | indeed, is not a perfect translation of that term, because it |
| + | | seems necessarily to imply a mediate reference to its object, |
| + | | which 'Vorstellung' does not. I however would limit the term |
| + | | neither to that which is mediate nor to that which is mental, |
| + | | but would use it in its broad, usual, and etymological sense |
| + | | for anything which is supposed to stand for another and which |
| + | | might express that other to a mind which truly could understand |
| + | | it. Thus our whole world -- that which we can comprehend -- is |
| + | | a world of representations. |
| + | | |
| + | | No one can deny that there are representations, for every thought is one. |
| + | | But with 'things' and 'forms' scepticism, though still unfounded, is at first |
| + | | possible. The 'thing' is that for which a representation might stand prescinded |
| + | | from all that would constitute a relation with any representation. The 'form' is |
| + | | the respect in which a representation might stand for a thing, prescinded from both |
| + | | thing and representation. We thus see that 'things' and 'forms' stand very differently |
| + | | with us from 'representations'. Not in being prescinded elements, for representations |
| + | | also are prescinded from other representations. But because we know representations |
| + | | absolutely, while we only know 'forms' and 'things' through representations. Thus |
| + | | scepticism is possible concerning 'them'. But for the very reason that they are |
| + | | known only relatively and therefore do not belong to our world, the hypothesis |
| + | | of 'things' and 'forms' introduces nothing false. For truth and falsity only |
| + | | apply to an object as far as it can be known. If indeed we could know things |
| + | | and forms in themselves, then perhaps our representations of them might |
| + | | contradict this knowledge. But since all that we know of them we know |
| + | | through representations, if our representations be consistent they |
| + | | have all the truth that the case admits of. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, pp. 256-257. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | LAS. Note 9 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | We found representations to be of three kinds |
| + | | |
| + | | Signs Copies Symbols. |
| + | | |
| + | | By a 'copy', I mean a representation whose agreement with |
| + | | its object depends merely upon a sameness of predicates. |
| + | | |
| + | | By a 'sign', I mean a representation whose reference to |
| + | | its object is fixed by convention. |
| + | | |
| + | | By a 'symbol', I mean one which upon being presented to the mind -- |
| + | | without any resemblance to its object and without any reference to |
| + | | a previous convention -- calls up a concept. I consider concepts, |
| + | | themselves, as a species of symbols. |
| + | | |
| + | | A symbol is subject to three conditions. First it must represent an object, |
| + | | or informed and representable thing. Second it must be a manifestation of |
| + | | a 'logos', or represented and realizable form. Third it must be translatable |
| + | | into another language or system of symbols. |
| + | | |
| + | | The science of the general laws of relations of symbols to logoi is general grammar. |
| + | | The science of the general laws of their relations to objects is logic. And the |
| + | | science of the general laws of their relations to other systems of symbols is |
| + | | general rhetoric. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, pp. 257-258. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | LAS. Note 10 |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | | When have then three different kinds of inference. |
| + | | |
| + | | Deduction or inference 'à priori', |
| + | | |
| + | | Induction or inference 'à particularis', and |
| + | | |
| + | | Hypothesis or inference 'à posteriori'. |
| + | | |
| + | | It is necessary now to examine this classification critically. |
| + | | |
| + | | And first let me specify what I claim for my invention. I do not claim that it is |
| + | | a natural classification, in the sense of being right while all others are wrong. |
| + | | I do not know that such a thing as a natural classification is possible in the |
| + | | nature of the case. The science which most resembles logic is mathematics. |
| + | | Now among mathematical forms there does not seem to be any natural classification. |
| + | | It is true that in the solutions of quadratic equations, there are generally two |
| + | | solutions from the positive and negative values of the root with an impossible |
| + | | gulf between them. But this classing is owing to the forms being restricted |
| + | | by the conditions of the problem; and I believe that all natural classes arise |
| + | | from some problem -- something which was to be accomplished and which could be |
| + | | accomplished only in certain ways. Required to make a musical instrument; |
| + | | you must set either a plate or a string in vibration. Required to make |
| + | | an animal; it must be either a vertebrate, an articulate, a mollusk, or |
| + | | a radiate. However this may be, in Geometry we find ourselves free to make |
| + | | several different classifications of curves, either of which shall be equally |
| + | | good. In fact, in order to make any classification of them whatever we must |
| + | | introduce the purely arbitrary element of a system of coördinates or something |
| + | | of the kind which constitutes the point of view from which we regard the curves |
| + | | and which determines their classification completely. Now it may be said that |
| + | | one system of coördinates is more 'natural' than another; and it is obvious |
| + | | that the conditions of binocular vision limit us in our use of our eyes to |
| + | | the use of particular coördinates. But this fact that one such system |
| + | | is more natural to us has clearly nothing to do with pure mathematics |
| + | | but is merely introducing a problem; given two eyes, required to form |
| + | | geometrical judgements, how can we do it? In the same way, I conceive |
| + | | that the syllogism is nothing but the system of coördinates or method of |
| + | | analysis which we adopt in logic. There is no reason why arguments should |
| + | | not be analyzed just as correctly in some other way. It is a great mistake to |
| + | | suppose that arguments as they are thought are often syllogisms, but even if this |
| + | | were the case it would have no bearing upon pure logic as a formal science. It is |
| + | | the principal business of the logician to analyze arguments into their elements just |
| + | | as it is part of the business of the geometer to analyze curves; but the one is no |
| + | | more bound to follow the natural process of the intellect in his analysis, than the |
| + | | other is bound to follow the natural process of perception. |
| + | | |
| + | | C.S. Peirce, 'Chronological Edition', CE 1, pp. 267-268. |
| + | | |
| + | | Charles Sanders Peirce, "Harvard Lectures 'On the Logic of Science'", (1865), |
| + | |'Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 1, 1857-1866', |
| + | | Peirce Edition Project, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1982. |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | DET. Determination |
| + | |
| + | Ontology List |
| + | |
| + | 00. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/thrd63.html#02377 |
| + | 01. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02377.html |
| + | 02. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02378.html |
| + | 03. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02379.html |
| + | 04. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02380.html |
| + | 05. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02384.html |
| + | 06. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02387.html |
| + | 07. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02388.html |
| + | 08. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02389.html |
| + | 09. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02390.html |
| + | 10. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02391.html |
| + | 11. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02395.html |
| + | 12. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02407.html |
| + | 13. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02550.html |
| + | 14. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02552.html |
| + | 15. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02556.html |
| + | 16. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02594.html |
| + | 17. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02651.html |
| + | 18. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02673.html |
| + | 19. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg02706.html |
| + | 20. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03177.html |
| + | 21. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03185.html |
| + | 22. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03188.html |
| + | |
| + | Inquiry List |
| + | |
| + | 00. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/thread.html#2197 |
| + | 01. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002197.html |
| + | 02. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002198.html |
| + | 03. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002199.html |
| + | 04. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002200.html |
| + | 05. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002201.html |
| + | 06. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002202.html |
| + | 07. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002203.html |
| + | 08. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002204.html |
| + | 09. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002205.html |
| + | 10. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002206.html |
| + | 11. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002207.html |
| + | 12. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002208.html |
| + | 13. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002209.html |
| + | 14. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002210.html |
| + | 15. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002211.html |
| + | 16. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002212.html |
| + | 17. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002213.html |
| + | 18. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002214.html |
| + | 19. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002215.html |
| + | 20. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002216.html |
| + | 21. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002217.html |
| + | 22. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002218.html |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | INF. Inquiry Into Information |
| + | |
| + | Ontology List |
| + | |
| + | 01. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03172.html |
| + | 02. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03174.html |
| + | 03. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03175.html |
| + | 04. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03176.html |
| + | 05. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03186.html |
| + | 06. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03194.html |
| + | 07. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03198.html |
| + | 08. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03199.html |
| + | 09. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03200.html |
| + | 10. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03203.html |
| + | 11. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03006.html |
| + | |
| + | Inquiry List |
| + | |
| + | 00. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/thread.html#2229 |
| + | 01. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002229.html |
| + | 02. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002230.html |
| + | 03. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002231.html |
| + | 04. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002232.html |
| + | 05. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002234.html |
| + | 06. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002235.html |
| + | 07. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002236.html |
| + | 08. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002237.html |
| + | 09. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002238.html |
| + | 10. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002239.html |
| + | 11. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002240.html |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | |
| + | LAS. Logic As Semiotic |
| + | |
| + | Ontology List |
| + | |
| + | 01. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03070.html |
| + | 02. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03171.html |
| + | 03. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03178.html |
| + | 04. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03179.html |
| + | 05. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03184.html |
| + | 06. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03187.html |
| + | 07. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03189.html |
| + | 08. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03190.html |
| + | 09. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03192.html |
| + | 10. http://suo.ieee.org/ontology/msg03193.html |
| + | |
| + | Inquiry List |
| + | |
| + | 00. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/thread.html#2219 |
| + | 01. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002219.html |
| + | 02. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002220.html |
| + | 03. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002221.html |
| + | 04. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002222.html |
| + | 05. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002223.html |
| + | 06. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002224.html |
| + | 07. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002225.html |
| + | 08. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002226.html |
| + | 09. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002227.html |
| + | 10. http://stderr.org/pipermail/inquiry/2004-December/002228.html |
| + | |
| + | o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~o |
| + | </pre> |