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, 21:43, 9 January 2008New page: {{DISPLAYTITLE:Vietnam Government And Politics}} '''Government Overview:''' The Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) has a monopoly on power. A three-person collective leadership consists of...
{{DISPLAYTITLE:Vietnam Government And Politics}}
'''Government Overview:''' The Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) has a monopoly on power. A
three-person collective leadership consists of the VCP general secretary, the prime minister, and
the president. President Tran Duc Luong is the chief of state, while Prime Minister Phan Van
Khai is head of government. General Secretary Nong Duc Manh heads up not only the VCP but
also the 15-member Politburo. A decision by any member of the triumvirate is vetted by the
other two. As a result, policy announcements tend to be bland and equivocal.
In July 2002, the National Assembly voted to keep Prime Minister Khai and President Luong in
office until 2007. Khai, who is the oldest member of the cabinet and is known for his pro-reform
policies, is believed likely to complete his 2002–7 term because of the absence of an heir
apparent. The mechanism for transfers of power suffers from a lack of transparency.
'''Constitution:''' Vietnam has had a series of constitutions, introduced in 1946, 1959, 1980, and
1992. As of late 2004, the Vietnamese constitution is regarded as the 1992 document, as
amended in 2001 to continue the reform of the state apparatus, to allow more leeway to the
private sector, and to promote progress in the areas of education, science, and technology. The
original 1992 constitution modestly downgraded the roles of the Vietnamese Communist Party
(VCP) and the government in favor of reform. Instead of being authorized to do whatever was
necessary to “build socialism,” the VCP was subordinated to the constitution and the law, while
the government was assigned specific management functions under the direction of a prime
minister, whose powers also were defined. In addition, the constitution called for a multisector
economy. Although the autonomy of state enterprises was recognized, a role also was assigned to
the private sector. Individuals were permitted to acquire lengthy land leases. Foreign investors
were granted ownership rights and protection against nationalization.
In 2001 the constitution was amended to increase the role of the National Assembly by giving it
the authority to decide budget allocations and to stage votes of no confidence in office holders.
Amendments also boosted the role of the private sector by recognizing the right to operate of any
businesses not explicitly prohibited and lifting restrictions on their size. These revisions were
intended to encourage the development of a cottage industry of individual traders and private
enterprises. In the field of education, amendments established the goals of universal secondary
education, more vocational and technical training, and easier access to education by the poor and
handicapped.
'''Branches of Government:''' The constitution recognizes the National Assembly as “the highest
organ of state power.” The National Assembly, a 498-member unicameral body elected to a five-
year term, meets twice a year. The assembly appoints the president (chief of state), the prime
minister (head of government), chief procurators of the Supreme People’s Court and the
Supreme People’s Office of Supervision and Control (the heads of the judiciary), and the 21-
member cabinet (the executive). Once a rubber stamp, the National Assembly has become more
assertive in holding ministers accountable and amending legislation. Ultimately, however, the
Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) controls the executive and the electoral process. The VCP
exercises control through the 150-member Central Committee, which elects the 15-member
Politburo at national party congresses held every five years. Members of the party hold all senior
government positions.
The Vietnamese government has ministers in the following areas: agriculture and rural
development; construction; culture and information; education and training; finance; foreign
affairs; industry; interior; justice; labor, war invalids, and social affairs; marine products;
national defense; planning and investment; public health; science, technology and environment;
trade; and transport and communications.
'''Administrative Divisions:''' Administratively, Vietnam consists of 59 provinces and 5
municipalities. The provinces are An Giang, Bac Giang, Bac Kan, Bac Lieu, Bac Ninh, Ba Ria-
Vung Tau, Ben Tre, Binh Dinh, Binh Duong, Binh Phuoc, Binh Thuan, Ca Mau, Cao Bang, Dac
Lak, Dac Nong, Dien Bien, Dong Nai, Dong Thap, Gia Lai, Ha Giang, Hai Duong, Ha Nam, Ha
Tay, Ha Tinh, Hau Giang, Hoa Binh, Hung Yen, Khanh Hoa, Kien Giang, Kon Tum, Lai Chau,
Lam Dong, Lang Son, Lao Cai, Long An, Nam Dinh, Nghe An, Ninh Binh, Ninh Thuan, Phu
Tho, Phu Yen, Quang Binh, Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Quang Ninh, Quang Tri, Soc Trang, Son
La, Tay Ninh, Thai Binh, Thai Nguyen, Thanh Hoa, Thua Thien-Hue, Tien Giang, Tra Vinh,
Tuyen Quang, Vinh Long, Vinh Phuc, and Yen Bai. The municipalities are Can Tho, Da Nang,
Haiphong, Hanoi, and Ho Chi Minh.
'''Provincial and Local Government:''' Provinces and municipalities are subdivided into towns,
districts, and villages. The provinces and municipalities are centrally controlled by the national
government. The towns, districts, and villages are locally accountable to some degree through
elected people’s councils.
'''Judicial and Legal System:''' At the apex of the judicial system is the Supreme People’s Court
(SPC), which is the highest court for appeal and review. The SPC reports to the National
Assembly, which controls the judiciary’s budget and confirms the president’s nominees to the
SPC and Supreme People’s Procuracy. The Supreme People’s Procuracy issues arrest warrants,
sometimes retroactively. Below the SPC are district and provincial people’s courts, military
tribunals, and administrative, economic, and labor courts. The people’s courts are the courts of
first instance. The Ministry of Defense (MOD) has military tribunals, which have the same rules
as civil courts. Military judges and assessors are selected by the MOD and SPC, but the SPC has
supervisory responsibility.
Although the constitution provides for independent judges and lay assessors (who lack
administrative training), the U.S. Department of State maintains that Vietnam lacks an
independent judiciary, in part because the Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) selects judges
and vets them for political reliability. Moreover, the party seeks to influence the outcome of
cases involving perceived threats to the state or the party’s dominant position. In an effort to
increase judicial independence, the government transferred local courts from the Ministry of
Justice to the SPC in September 2002. However, the Department of State saw no evidence that
the move actually achieved the stated goal. Vietnam’s judiciary also is hampered by a shortage
of lawyers and rudimentary trial procedures. The death penalty often is imposed in cases of
corruption and drug trafficking.
'''Electoral System:''' Vietnam has universal suffrage at age 18. Elections for the National
Assembly are scheduled every five years. The last election was held on May 19, 2002. The next
election is scheduled in 2007. In addition, elections to the people’s councils (local assemblies)
were last held in April 2004. Although candidates are carefully vetted, about 25 percent of those
elected were not members of the Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP). By a law enacted in
2003, each district has at least two more candidates than the number of elected positions.
'''Politics/Political Parties:''' Vietnam is a one-party state. The Vietnamese Communist Party
(VCP) has a monopoly on power.
'''Mass Media:''' Vietnam’s mass media are supervised by the Ministry of Culture and Information
and communicate officially approved information. The government has shut down non-
compliant newspapers. Only senior officials are permitted access to foreign television via
satellite. Given Vietnam’s close supervision of official media outlets, dissidents have sought to
disseminate their views via the Internet, leading the government to impose restrictions on
Internet use and access. The regime controls Internet access via Vietnam’s sole gateway,
Vietnam Data Communications. In 2002 the Ministry of Culture and Information began to block
access to Internet Web sites it considers “subversive,” such as the BBC’s Vietnamese language
Web site. Also in 2002, the government sent a warning by jailing activists for publishing critical
commentaries on the Internet. Altogether, Reporters Without Borders documented seven cases of
dissidents being imprisoned or detained for illicit Internet use. The government also has
tightened controls over cybercafés. In 2004 the government reprimanded 65 cybercafé owners
for violating restrictions on Internet access, including the viewing of pornography.
'''Foreign Relations:''' During its incursion into Cambodia in 1978–89, Vietnam was isolated
internationally. However, soon after the conflict was resolved in the Paris Agreement on
Cambodia in October 1991, Vietnam established or reestablished diplomatic and economic
relations with most of Western Europe, China, and other East Asian countries. Vietnam joined
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1995 and the Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation forum (APEC) in 1998. Vietnam’s foreign policy is aimed at developing good
relations with a diversified mix of nations.
In February 1994, the United States lifted its economic embargo against Vietnam, and in June
1995 the United States and Vietnam normalized relations. However, these relations remain
somewhat volatile. Full implementation of a bilateral trade agreement, which came into effect in
December 2001, is being held up by a dispute over catfish exports. In July 2003, the
International Trade Commission decided in favor of the United States in the catfish dispute.
Vietnam’s government is also upset with a bill introduced in the U.S. Congress in July 2004 to
link non-humanitarian aid to Vietnam’s human rights record. In June 2005, a high-level
Vietnamese delegation, led by Prime Minister Phan Van Khai, visited the United States and met
with their U.S. counterparts, including President George W. Bush. This was the first such visit in
30 years. The leaders engaged in far-reaching discussions, including lingering issues from the
Second Indochina War, but the United States did not endorse Vietnam’s bid to join the World
Trade Organization (WTO) during the visit.
Ideological affinities are driving improved relations with China, and trade between the nations
soared to reach US$7.2 billion in 2004. But despite improved relations, Vietnam remains
suspicious of China’s intentions. In January 2000, China and Vietnam signed a treaty defining a
common land border. However, the countries both claim sovereignty over the Spratly and
Paracel Islands in the South China Sea, and this dispute is a potential source of renewed tension.
Vietnam enjoys a good political and economic relationship with Japan, and the two countries are
partnering to exploit the disputed offshore oil fields in the South China Sea. At a meeting in
Hanoi in July 2004, foreign ministers from the two nations pledged to strengthen the partnership.
Already a major trading partner and investor, Japan promised to boost direct investment in
Vietnam. Japan also offered support for Vietnam’s bid to join the WTO. In December 2004,
Japan announced a grant of US$19 million to fight poverty in Vietnam.
Russia’s predecessor state, the Soviet Union, was a longstanding ally and a major investor.
Following the break-up of the Soviet Union, Russia reduced its investments in Vietnam. Trade
also suffered as a result of a dispute over the large debt that Vietnam owed the Soviet Union.
This debt has been restructured to Vietnam’s benefit so that Vietnam now must repay only 15
percent, with payments stretched over two decades. Part of the debt is repayable in commodities
such as rice and coffee.
'''Membership in International Organizations:''' Vietnam is a member of the Asian Development
Bank, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, the International Monetary Fund, the
United Nations, and the World Health Organization. Reflecting Vietnam’s recognition of its
place in the global economy, in 1995 Vietnam joined the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN). Now an observer at the World Trade Organization (WTO), Vietnam hopes to become
a full member of the WTO in 2006.
Other memberships include the Colombo Plan for Cooperative Economic and Social
Development in Asia and the Pacific, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
International Atomic Energy Agency, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(World Bank), International Civil Aviation Organization, International Development
Association, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Finance
Corporation, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, International
Labour Organization, International Maritime Organization, Interpol, International Olympic
Committee, International Telecommunication Union, Nonaligned Movement, Organisation for
the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development,
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, United Nations Industrial
Development Organization, World Confederation of Labor, World Customs Organization, World
Federation of Trade Unions, and World Intellectual Property Organization.
'''Major International Treaties:''' With the United States, Vietnam reached the following
agreements: Normalization of Relations (1995), Bilateral Trade (2001), and Counternarcotics,
Civil Aviation, and Textiles (2003). With China, Vietnam reached a Land Border Agreement
(1999), an Agreement on Borders in the Gulf of Tonkin (2000), and a Declaration on the
Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea (2002). With Russia, Vietnam agreed to a Strategic
Partnership (2001).
Aside from these bilateral agreements, Vietnam is a signatory to numerous international
agreements on biological weapons, chemical weapons, civil aviation, counterterrorism,
diplomatic immunity, nuclear nonproliferation, and war crimes. Notable agreements on the
environment include the following: Convention on the Prohibition of Military or any other
Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (1978), Convention on Early
Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986), Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear
Accident or Radiological Emergency (1987), Convention for Protection of the Ozone Layer
(1988), Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1989), and United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1994).
'''Government Overview:''' The Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) has a monopoly on power. A
three-person collective leadership consists of the VCP general secretary, the prime minister, and
the president. President Tran Duc Luong is the chief of state, while Prime Minister Phan Van
Khai is head of government. General Secretary Nong Duc Manh heads up not only the VCP but
also the 15-member Politburo. A decision by any member of the triumvirate is vetted by the
other two. As a result, policy announcements tend to be bland and equivocal.
In July 2002, the National Assembly voted to keep Prime Minister Khai and President Luong in
office until 2007. Khai, who is the oldest member of the cabinet and is known for his pro-reform
policies, is believed likely to complete his 2002–7 term because of the absence of an heir
apparent. The mechanism for transfers of power suffers from a lack of transparency.
'''Constitution:''' Vietnam has had a series of constitutions, introduced in 1946, 1959, 1980, and
1992. As of late 2004, the Vietnamese constitution is regarded as the 1992 document, as
amended in 2001 to continue the reform of the state apparatus, to allow more leeway to the
private sector, and to promote progress in the areas of education, science, and technology. The
original 1992 constitution modestly downgraded the roles of the Vietnamese Communist Party
(VCP) and the government in favor of reform. Instead of being authorized to do whatever was
necessary to “build socialism,” the VCP was subordinated to the constitution and the law, while
the government was assigned specific management functions under the direction of a prime
minister, whose powers also were defined. In addition, the constitution called for a multisector
economy. Although the autonomy of state enterprises was recognized, a role also was assigned to
the private sector. Individuals were permitted to acquire lengthy land leases. Foreign investors
were granted ownership rights and protection against nationalization.
In 2001 the constitution was amended to increase the role of the National Assembly by giving it
the authority to decide budget allocations and to stage votes of no confidence in office holders.
Amendments also boosted the role of the private sector by recognizing the right to operate of any
businesses not explicitly prohibited and lifting restrictions on their size. These revisions were
intended to encourage the development of a cottage industry of individual traders and private
enterprises. In the field of education, amendments established the goals of universal secondary
education, more vocational and technical training, and easier access to education by the poor and
handicapped.
'''Branches of Government:''' The constitution recognizes the National Assembly as “the highest
organ of state power.” The National Assembly, a 498-member unicameral body elected to a five-
year term, meets twice a year. The assembly appoints the president (chief of state), the prime
minister (head of government), chief procurators of the Supreme People’s Court and the
Supreme People’s Office of Supervision and Control (the heads of the judiciary), and the 21-
member cabinet (the executive). Once a rubber stamp, the National Assembly has become more
assertive in holding ministers accountable and amending legislation. Ultimately, however, the
Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) controls the executive and the electoral process. The VCP
exercises control through the 150-member Central Committee, which elects the 15-member
Politburo at national party congresses held every five years. Members of the party hold all senior
government positions.
The Vietnamese government has ministers in the following areas: agriculture and rural
development; construction; culture and information; education and training; finance; foreign
affairs; industry; interior; justice; labor, war invalids, and social affairs; marine products;
national defense; planning and investment; public health; science, technology and environment;
trade; and transport and communications.
'''Administrative Divisions:''' Administratively, Vietnam consists of 59 provinces and 5
municipalities. The provinces are An Giang, Bac Giang, Bac Kan, Bac Lieu, Bac Ninh, Ba Ria-
Vung Tau, Ben Tre, Binh Dinh, Binh Duong, Binh Phuoc, Binh Thuan, Ca Mau, Cao Bang, Dac
Lak, Dac Nong, Dien Bien, Dong Nai, Dong Thap, Gia Lai, Ha Giang, Hai Duong, Ha Nam, Ha
Tay, Ha Tinh, Hau Giang, Hoa Binh, Hung Yen, Khanh Hoa, Kien Giang, Kon Tum, Lai Chau,
Lam Dong, Lang Son, Lao Cai, Long An, Nam Dinh, Nghe An, Ninh Binh, Ninh Thuan, Phu
Tho, Phu Yen, Quang Binh, Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Quang Ninh, Quang Tri, Soc Trang, Son
La, Tay Ninh, Thai Binh, Thai Nguyen, Thanh Hoa, Thua Thien-Hue, Tien Giang, Tra Vinh,
Tuyen Quang, Vinh Long, Vinh Phuc, and Yen Bai. The municipalities are Can Tho, Da Nang,
Haiphong, Hanoi, and Ho Chi Minh.
'''Provincial and Local Government:''' Provinces and municipalities are subdivided into towns,
districts, and villages. The provinces and municipalities are centrally controlled by the national
government. The towns, districts, and villages are locally accountable to some degree through
elected people’s councils.
'''Judicial and Legal System:''' At the apex of the judicial system is the Supreme People’s Court
(SPC), which is the highest court for appeal and review. The SPC reports to the National
Assembly, which controls the judiciary’s budget and confirms the president’s nominees to the
SPC and Supreme People’s Procuracy. The Supreme People’s Procuracy issues arrest warrants,
sometimes retroactively. Below the SPC are district and provincial people’s courts, military
tribunals, and administrative, economic, and labor courts. The people’s courts are the courts of
first instance. The Ministry of Defense (MOD) has military tribunals, which have the same rules
as civil courts. Military judges and assessors are selected by the MOD and SPC, but the SPC has
supervisory responsibility.
Although the constitution provides for independent judges and lay assessors (who lack
administrative training), the U.S. Department of State maintains that Vietnam lacks an
independent judiciary, in part because the Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) selects judges
and vets them for political reliability. Moreover, the party seeks to influence the outcome of
cases involving perceived threats to the state or the party’s dominant position. In an effort to
increase judicial independence, the government transferred local courts from the Ministry of
Justice to the SPC in September 2002. However, the Department of State saw no evidence that
the move actually achieved the stated goal. Vietnam’s judiciary also is hampered by a shortage
of lawyers and rudimentary trial procedures. The death penalty often is imposed in cases of
corruption and drug trafficking.
'''Electoral System:''' Vietnam has universal suffrage at age 18. Elections for the National
Assembly are scheduled every five years. The last election was held on May 19, 2002. The next
election is scheduled in 2007. In addition, elections to the people’s councils (local assemblies)
were last held in April 2004. Although candidates are carefully vetted, about 25 percent of those
elected were not members of the Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP). By a law enacted in
2003, each district has at least two more candidates than the number of elected positions.
'''Politics/Political Parties:''' Vietnam is a one-party state. The Vietnamese Communist Party
(VCP) has a monopoly on power.
'''Mass Media:''' Vietnam’s mass media are supervised by the Ministry of Culture and Information
and communicate officially approved information. The government has shut down non-
compliant newspapers. Only senior officials are permitted access to foreign television via
satellite. Given Vietnam’s close supervision of official media outlets, dissidents have sought to
disseminate their views via the Internet, leading the government to impose restrictions on
Internet use and access. The regime controls Internet access via Vietnam’s sole gateway,
Vietnam Data Communications. In 2002 the Ministry of Culture and Information began to block
access to Internet Web sites it considers “subversive,” such as the BBC’s Vietnamese language
Web site. Also in 2002, the government sent a warning by jailing activists for publishing critical
commentaries on the Internet. Altogether, Reporters Without Borders documented seven cases of
dissidents being imprisoned or detained for illicit Internet use. The government also has
tightened controls over cybercafés. In 2004 the government reprimanded 65 cybercafé owners
for violating restrictions on Internet access, including the viewing of pornography.
'''Foreign Relations:''' During its incursion into Cambodia in 1978–89, Vietnam was isolated
internationally. However, soon after the conflict was resolved in the Paris Agreement on
Cambodia in October 1991, Vietnam established or reestablished diplomatic and economic
relations with most of Western Europe, China, and other East Asian countries. Vietnam joined
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1995 and the Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation forum (APEC) in 1998. Vietnam’s foreign policy is aimed at developing good
relations with a diversified mix of nations.
In February 1994, the United States lifted its economic embargo against Vietnam, and in June
1995 the United States and Vietnam normalized relations. However, these relations remain
somewhat volatile. Full implementation of a bilateral trade agreement, which came into effect in
December 2001, is being held up by a dispute over catfish exports. In July 2003, the
International Trade Commission decided in favor of the United States in the catfish dispute.
Vietnam’s government is also upset with a bill introduced in the U.S. Congress in July 2004 to
link non-humanitarian aid to Vietnam’s human rights record. In June 2005, a high-level
Vietnamese delegation, led by Prime Minister Phan Van Khai, visited the United States and met
with their U.S. counterparts, including President George W. Bush. This was the first such visit in
30 years. The leaders engaged in far-reaching discussions, including lingering issues from the
Second Indochina War, but the United States did not endorse Vietnam’s bid to join the World
Trade Organization (WTO) during the visit.
Ideological affinities are driving improved relations with China, and trade between the nations
soared to reach US$7.2 billion in 2004. But despite improved relations, Vietnam remains
suspicious of China’s intentions. In January 2000, China and Vietnam signed a treaty defining a
common land border. However, the countries both claim sovereignty over the Spratly and
Paracel Islands in the South China Sea, and this dispute is a potential source of renewed tension.
Vietnam enjoys a good political and economic relationship with Japan, and the two countries are
partnering to exploit the disputed offshore oil fields in the South China Sea. At a meeting in
Hanoi in July 2004, foreign ministers from the two nations pledged to strengthen the partnership.
Already a major trading partner and investor, Japan promised to boost direct investment in
Vietnam. Japan also offered support for Vietnam’s bid to join the WTO. In December 2004,
Japan announced a grant of US$19 million to fight poverty in Vietnam.
Russia’s predecessor state, the Soviet Union, was a longstanding ally and a major investor.
Following the break-up of the Soviet Union, Russia reduced its investments in Vietnam. Trade
also suffered as a result of a dispute over the large debt that Vietnam owed the Soviet Union.
This debt has been restructured to Vietnam’s benefit so that Vietnam now must repay only 15
percent, with payments stretched over two decades. Part of the debt is repayable in commodities
such as rice and coffee.
'''Membership in International Organizations:''' Vietnam is a member of the Asian Development
Bank, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, the International Monetary Fund, the
United Nations, and the World Health Organization. Reflecting Vietnam’s recognition of its
place in the global economy, in 1995 Vietnam joined the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN). Now an observer at the World Trade Organization (WTO), Vietnam hopes to become
a full member of the WTO in 2006.
Other memberships include the Colombo Plan for Cooperative Economic and Social
Development in Asia and the Pacific, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
International Atomic Energy Agency, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(World Bank), International Civil Aviation Organization, International Development
Association, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Finance
Corporation, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, International
Labour Organization, International Maritime Organization, Interpol, International Olympic
Committee, International Telecommunication Union, Nonaligned Movement, Organisation for
the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development,
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, United Nations Industrial
Development Organization, World Confederation of Labor, World Customs Organization, World
Federation of Trade Unions, and World Intellectual Property Organization.
'''Major International Treaties:''' With the United States, Vietnam reached the following
agreements: Normalization of Relations (1995), Bilateral Trade (2001), and Counternarcotics,
Civil Aviation, and Textiles (2003). With China, Vietnam reached a Land Border Agreement
(1999), an Agreement on Borders in the Gulf of Tonkin (2000), and a Declaration on the
Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea (2002). With Russia, Vietnam agreed to a Strategic
Partnership (2001).
Aside from these bilateral agreements, Vietnam is a signatory to numerous international
agreements on biological weapons, chemical weapons, civil aviation, counterterrorism,
diplomatic immunity, nuclear nonproliferation, and war crimes. Notable agreements on the
environment include the following: Convention on the Prohibition of Military or any other
Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (1978), Convention on Early
Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986), Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear
Accident or Radiological Emergency (1987), Convention for Protection of the Ozone Layer
(1988), Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1989), and United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1994).
