Difference between revisions of "Dalmatian Italians"
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* "OROGRAPHY: That part of physical geography which deals with the geological formation, the surface features and description of mountains. The terms "oreography," "orology" and "oreology" are also sometimes used.</ref> of Dalmatia communications between the different Dalmatian cities occurred mainly through the sea. This helped Dalmatian cities to develop a unique Romance culture, despite the mostly Slavicized mainland. | * "OROGRAPHY: That part of physical geography which deals with the geological formation, the surface features and description of mountains. The terms "oreography," "orology" and "oreology" are also sometimes used.</ref> of Dalmatia communications between the different Dalmatian cities occurred mainly through the sea. This helped Dalmatian cities to develop a unique Romance culture, despite the mostly Slavicized mainland. | ||
| + | ==== Late Middle Ages==== | ||
| + | From the late Middle Ages onwards the population did slowly start to merge with the Slavic peoples of Dalmatia. This process was most evident in the coastal and island regions of Dalmatia. Dalmatia is a region of Europe with a very multicultural and multiethnic history.<ref>[http://books.google.com.au/books?id=kMXURN7sxh4C&pg=PA8&dq=The+Italians+of+Dalmatia:+Middle+ages+population+merge+with+the+Italian+Slavic++Dalmatia&hl=en&ei=WVuQTby_GdO8cdCT3ZAK&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false The Italians of Dalmatia:] From Italian Unification to World War One by Luciano Monzali (p8)</ref> Croatians in Dalmatia as well as other regions have language remnants of the extinct [[Latin|Romance Latin]] language - Dalmatian and additionally we have influences of old Venetian in the [[Directory:Korcula History 2#Korcula dialect and Venetian|local dialects]]. The Republic of Venice controlled most of Dalmatia from 1420 to 1797. During that period, part of its Slavic population was italianised. | ||
| − | + | The Venetian possessions were called "Venetian Dalmatia" and enjoyed a flourishing period of economic bonanza with huge development of the arts and culture. Dalmatia was greatly influenced by the Italian Renaissance and many buildings, churches and cathedrals were done in those years, from Zadar and Split to Sibenik (Sebenico) and Dubrovnik. Zadar was the capital of the Venetian Dalmatia. In these centuries, the Venetian language became the "lingua franca" of all Dalmatia, assimilating the Dalmatian language of the Romanised Illyrians and influencing partially the coastal Croatian language (Chakavian). | |
== Cultural and historical Venetian presence in Dalmatia == | == Cultural and historical Venetian presence in Dalmatia == | ||
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In 1880 Antonio Bajamonti (the last Dalmatian Italian Major of Split under [[Austria|Austrian]] rule) developed an urbanisation project of this city centred on the "Riva", a seaside walkway full of palms based on the Italian Riviera models. Even today the Riva (with cafe bars) is used by the locals to stroll in a typical Italian way from the "Palace of Diocletian" toward an old square called locally "Pjaca" (or square in Venetian). | In 1880 Antonio Bajamonti (the last Dalmatian Italian Major of Split under [[Austria|Austrian]] rule) developed an urbanisation project of this city centred on the "Riva", a seaside walkway full of palms based on the Italian Riviera models. Even today the Riva (with cafe bars) is used by the locals to stroll in a typical Italian way from the "Palace of Diocletian" toward an old square called locally "Pjaca" (or square in Venetian). | ||
| − | In Dalmatia religious and public architecture flourished with clear influences of Italian Renaissance. Important to mention are the Cathedral of St James in Sibenik | + | In Dalmatia religious and public architecture flourished with clear influences of Italian Renaissance. Important to mention are the Cathedral of St James in Sibenik, Chapel of Blessed John in Trogir, and Sorgo’s villa in Dubrovnik. |
[[File:400px-Split riva.jpg|thumb|right|400px|The "Riva" of Split, that was created and named by Antonio Bajamonti. ''(photo by Mate Balota)'']] | [[File:400px-Split riva.jpg|thumb|right|400px|The "Riva" of Split, that was created and named by Antonio Bajamonti. ''(photo by Mate Balota)'']] | ||
| + | |||
| + | === Perast in Coastal Montenegro === | ||
| + | |||
| + | An enduring example of the Italian cultural and historic presence in Dalmatia is the small town of Perast (Perasto) in coastal Montenegro. Perast was at its peak in the 18th century under the Republic of Venice, when it had as many as four active shipyards, a fleet of around one hundred ships, and 1,643 residents. At that time the most beautiful buildings arose in this fortified town. Many ornate baroque palaces and magnificent dwelling-houses decorated the town of Perast (Perasto), full of typical venetian architecture. Perast had the privilege to keep war-flag of the Venetian Navy in the peace time (it was called "La fedelissma Gonfaloniera"). | ||
| + | |||
| + | The sailormen of Perast were involved in the last battle of the Venetian navy, fought in Venice in 1797. At the fall of the "Serenissima" (1797) Perast was the last city of the Republic to lower the Venetian flag. On 12 May 1797, the Republic of Venice ended, but a few places in the Albania Veneta for several months still continued to remain loyal to the Venetian Republic: Perast was the last place of the Republic to surrender. On 22 August 1797 the Count Giuseppe Viscovich, Captain of Perast lowered the Venetian war-flag of the Lion of Saint Mark pronouncing the farewell words in front of the crying people of the city and buried the "Gonfalon of Venice" under the altar of the main church of Perast . | ||
| + | |||
| + | The population has since decreased to 430 in 1910 and around 360 today. According to the "Comunita' nazionale italiana del Montenegro", in Perast actually there are 140 persons who still speak at home the original venetian dialect of Perast (called "veneto da mar"). | ||
| + | |||
====Musical styles==== | ====Musical styles==== | ||
In some of the musical styles of [[Croatia]] it is quite evident of the merge of Slavic and Italian music. One such musical style is Klapa music (klapa is an a cappella form of music - Venetian: clapa "singing crowd"). Klapa singing dates back centuries. The arrival of the Croatians to Dalmatia and their subsequent settlement in the area, began the long process of the cultural mixing of Slavic culture with that of the traditions of the Roman-Latin population of Dalmatia. | In some of the musical styles of [[Croatia]] it is quite evident of the merge of Slavic and Italian music. One such musical style is Klapa music (klapa is an a cappella form of music - Venetian: clapa "singing crowd"). Klapa singing dates back centuries. The arrival of the Croatians to Dalmatia and their subsequent settlement in the area, began the long process of the cultural mixing of Slavic culture with that of the traditions of the Roman-Latin population of Dalmatia. | ||
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*Statements made by the contemporary historian John Van Antwerp Fine (Professor Emeritus of History at the University of Michigan):{{Cquote|''Such substitutions of “Croat” for” Slav,” however, mislead the reader into believing something the sources do not tell...''<ref>[http://books.google.com.au/books?id=wEF5oN5erE0C&pg=PA11&dq=John+Van+Antwerp+Fine+Such+substitutions+of+“Croat”+for”+Slav,”+however&hl=en&ei=oT-ITfy5CoPCvQOo56HZDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Ethnicity did not Matter in the Balkans:] by John Van Antwerp Fine (p11)</ref> | *Statements made by the contemporary historian John Van Antwerp Fine (Professor Emeritus of History at the University of Michigan):{{Cquote|''Such substitutions of “Croat” for” Slav,” however, mislead the reader into believing something the sources do not tell...''<ref>[http://books.google.com.au/books?id=wEF5oN5erE0C&pg=PA11&dq=John+Van+Antwerp+Fine+Such+substitutions+of+“Croat”+for”+Slav,”+however&hl=en&ei=oT-ITfy5CoPCvQOo56HZDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Ethnicity did not Matter in the Balkans:] by John Van Antwerp Fine (p11)</ref> | ||
{{Cquote|''There is no justification to falsify history to support ethnic ambitions. The Croats and their Balkan neighbours have done this in a major way'' <ref>[http://books.google.com.au/books?id=wEF5oN5erE0C&pg=PA15&dq=When+ethnicity+did+not+matter+in+the+Balkans++falsify+history&hl=en&ei=vmmZTeq9O4_qvQOtmfj5Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false When Ethnicity did not Matter in the Balkans] by John Van Antwerp Fine (p15)</ref>}}}} | {{Cquote|''There is no justification to falsify history to support ethnic ambitions. The Croats and their Balkan neighbours have done this in a major way'' <ref>[http://books.google.com.au/books?id=wEF5oN5erE0C&pg=PA15&dq=When+ethnicity+did+not+matter+in+the+Balkans++falsify+history&hl=en&ei=vmmZTeq9O4_qvQOtmfj5Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false When Ethnicity did not Matter in the Balkans] by John Van Antwerp Fine (p15)</ref>}}}} | ||
| + | '''Note''': Communist Yugoslavia executed Historian - ''Kerubin Segvic''. He was executed mainly for proposing a different historic model than that of Yugoslav regime state policies of Croatians arriving in the Western Balkans.<ref>[http://books.google.com.au/books?id=6UbOtJcF8rQC&pg=PA20&dq=Kerubin+Segvic+Becoming+Slav,+Becoming+Croat:+Identity+Transformations+in+Post-Roman&hl=en&ei=ITrwTP7nLsW3cO_RwJYK&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Becoming Slav, Becoming Croat:] Identity Transformations in Post-Roman and Early Medieval Dalmatia by Danijel Dzino (p20)</ref> | ||
| + | |||
== External links == | == External links == | ||
* [http://secretdalmatia.wordpress.com/2010/11/24/zadar-the-charming-past/ Image of Zadar post Allied bombings (February 4th 1944)] | * [http://secretdalmatia.wordpress.com/2010/11/24/zadar-the-charming-past/ Image of Zadar post Allied bombings (February 4th 1944)] | ||
Revision as of 14:22, 22 April 2011
| This article is a work in progress. |
Dalmatian Italians are an Italian national minority in the region of Dalmatia (today part of Croatia). In the 1860s, during the Austrian rule of the Kingdom of Dalmatia, the ethnic group started to suffer from a trend of decreasing numbers and only around 1,000 of the group remain.
When Austria occupied Dalmatia the Italian (Venetian speaking) population, was (according to the Italian linguist Bartoli) nearly one third of the Dalmatia in the first half of the 19th century. According to the Austrian census it decreased from 22% in 1816 to 12.5% in 1853, then a mere 2.9% in 1910.
Early History
Roman Dalmatia
Roman Dalmatia was fully latinized by 476 AD when the Western Roman Empire disappeared, according to scholar Theodor Mommsen in his book "The Provinces of the Roman Empire". More recent theories have suggested that this would only apply to cities and towns, whilst in the country side, this would not have been the case.
During the Barbarian invasions of the 6th and 7th century, [1] Eurasian Avars allied with certain Slavic tribes [2][3] invaded and plundered Byzantine-Roman Dalmatia. This eventually led to the settlement of different Slavic tribes in the Balkans. Modern scholarly research now puts the time of the invasion of the Slavic tribes in the region to be much later.[4] Archaeological evidence found in the old Roman city of Salon and in particularly the artefacts found at the Old Croatian grave sites [5] in Dalmatia (during recent excavations) seems to confirm this. The arrival of the Slavs by some has now been placed to be more in the region of the 8th century or even early 9th century.
The original Roman population endured within the coastal cities[6] and in the inhospitable Dinaric Alps (later known as "Morlachs" or Vlachs). The Dalmatian cities retained their Romanic culture and Latin language in cities such as Zadar (Jadera/Zara), Split (Spalatum/Spalato), Dubrovnik (Ragusa) and Trogir (Trau). These areas developed their own Vulgar Latin, the Dalmatian language,[7] a now extinct Romance language.[8] Many coastal cities and towns or the region (politically part of the Byzantine Empire)[9] maintained political, cultural and economic links with the Italian peninsula through the Adriatic sea. Communications with the mainland were difficult because of the Dinaric Alps. Due to the sharp orography [10] of Dalmatia communications between the different Dalmatian cities occurred mainly through the sea. This helped Dalmatian cities to develop a unique Romance culture, despite the mostly Slavicized mainland.
Late Middle Ages
From the late Middle Ages onwards the population did slowly start to merge with the Slavic peoples of Dalmatia. This process was most evident in the coastal and island regions of Dalmatia. Dalmatia is a region of Europe with a very multicultural and multiethnic history.[11] Croatians in Dalmatia as well as other regions have language remnants of the extinct Romance Latin language - Dalmatian and additionally we have influences of old Venetian in the local dialects. The Republic of Venice controlled most of Dalmatia from 1420 to 1797. During that period, part of its Slavic population was italianised.
The Venetian possessions were called "Venetian Dalmatia" and enjoyed a flourishing period of economic bonanza with huge development of the arts and culture. Dalmatia was greatly influenced by the Italian Renaissance and many buildings, churches and cathedrals were done in those years, from Zadar and Split to Sibenik (Sebenico) and Dubrovnik. Zadar was the capital of the Venetian Dalmatia. In these centuries, the Venetian language became the "lingua franca" of all Dalmatia, assimilating the Dalmatian language of the Romanised Illyrians and influencing partially the coastal Croatian language (Chakavian).
Cultural and historical Venetian presence in Dalmatia
Cultural and historical Venetian presence in Dalmatia is related to the northern Italian influences in Dalmatia. The original Roman Dalmatia is now divided between Croatia, Herzegovina and Montenegro. The cultural influence from the Republic of Venice is clearly evident in the urbanisation plans of the main Dalmatian cities. One of the best examples is the one of Split.
In 1880 Antonio Bajamonti (the last Dalmatian Italian Major of Split under Austrian rule) developed an urbanisation project of this city centred on the "Riva", a seaside walkway full of palms based on the Italian Riviera models. Even today the Riva (with cafe bars) is used by the locals to stroll in a typical Italian way from the "Palace of Diocletian" toward an old square called locally "Pjaca" (or square in Venetian).
In Dalmatia religious and public architecture flourished with clear influences of Italian Renaissance. Important to mention are the Cathedral of St James in Sibenik, Chapel of Blessed John in Trogir, and Sorgo’s villa in Dubrovnik.
Perast in Coastal Montenegro
An enduring example of the Italian cultural and historic presence in Dalmatia is the small town of Perast (Perasto) in coastal Montenegro. Perast was at its peak in the 18th century under the Republic of Venice, when it had as many as four active shipyards, a fleet of around one hundred ships, and 1,643 residents. At that time the most beautiful buildings arose in this fortified town. Many ornate baroque palaces and magnificent dwelling-houses decorated the town of Perast (Perasto), full of typical venetian architecture. Perast had the privilege to keep war-flag of the Venetian Navy in the peace time (it was called "La fedelissma Gonfaloniera").
The sailormen of Perast were involved in the last battle of the Venetian navy, fought in Venice in 1797. At the fall of the "Serenissima" (1797) Perast was the last city of the Republic to lower the Venetian flag. On 12 May 1797, the Republic of Venice ended, but a few places in the Albania Veneta for several months still continued to remain loyal to the Venetian Republic: Perast was the last place of the Republic to surrender. On 22 August 1797 the Count Giuseppe Viscovich, Captain of Perast lowered the Venetian war-flag of the Lion of Saint Mark pronouncing the farewell words in front of the crying people of the city and buried the "Gonfalon of Venice" under the altar of the main church of Perast .
The population has since decreased to 430 in 1910 and around 360 today. According to the "Comunita' nazionale italiana del Montenegro", in Perast actually there are 140 persons who still speak at home the original venetian dialect of Perast (called "veneto da mar").
Musical styles
In some of the musical styles of Croatia it is quite evident of the merge of Slavic and Italian music. One such musical style is Klapa music (klapa is an a cappella form of music - Venetian: clapa "singing crowd"). Klapa singing dates back centuries. The arrival of the Croatians to Dalmatia and their subsequent settlement in the area, began the long process of the cultural mixing of Slavic culture with that of the traditions of the Roman-Latin population of Dalmatia.
This process was most evident in the coastal and island regions of Dalmatia. In the 19th century a standard form of Klapa singing emerged. The traditional Klapa was composed of up to a dozen male singers (in recent times there are female Klape groups). Church music heavily influences the arrangements of this music giving it the musical form that exists today.
Perspectives on Dalamtia
Sir John Gardner Wilkinson
Sir John Gardner Wilkinson (1797 – 1875) was an English traveller, writer and pioneer Egyptologist of the 19th century. He is often referred to as "the Father of British Egyptology". He was in Dubrovnik (then called Ragusa) in 1848, he wrote in his; Dalmatia and Montenegro: With a Journey to Mostar in Herzegovina:
| “ | Italian is spoken in all the seaports of Dalmatia, but the language of the country is a dialect of the Slavonic, which alone is used by peasants in the interior.[12] | ” |
| “ | Their language though gradually falling into Venetianisms of the other Dalmatians towns, still retains some of that pure Italian idiom, for which was always noted. [13] | ” |
Andrew Archibald Paton
Andrew Archibald Paton (1811 - 1874) was a British diplomat and writer from the 19 century. In 1861 he wrote in his; Researches on the Danube and the Adriatic: Or, Contributions to the Modern:
| “ | ...the islands of Dalmatia owe much of their culture ti the near vicinity of Venice and the more extensive use of the Italian language... [14] | ” |
Maude Holbach (a 1910 travel guide)
- Dalmatia-The Land Where East Meets West by Maude Holbach (a 1910 travel guide from COSIMO books and publications New York USA):
| “ | Two hundred years later that, is, early in the tenth century you might have heard Slavish and Latin spoken had you walked in the streets of Ragusa (Dubrovnik), just as you hear Slavish and Italian today ; for as times of peace followed times of war, the Greek and Roman inhabitants of Rausium intermarried with the surrounding Slavs, and so a mixed race sprang up, a people apart from the rest of Dalmatia. [15] | ” |
Zadar (Zara) during and after World War II
The chapter below is taken from the Secret Dalmatia Blog site, it is written by Alan Mandic.
| “ | The Italian majority in Zadar was first hurt by the Allied bombings and then chased away by the communist rule. In those terrible times, many people were looking for all sorts of revenges: from personal to national and many of Zadar’s Italians perished.[16][17][18][19] Some say that bones of many are still in one of the caves of Levrnaka in Kornati, many managed to escape and leave their beloved city for good, some stayed and formed a small Italian community. Among those who went from their homes were Ottavio Missoni (fashion designer born in Dubrovnik). [20] | ” |
Former Yugoslavia and the History of Dalmatia
The region of the former Yugoslavia-West Balkans has problems with interpreting multicultural, multiethnic history and societies. The statement below comes from a book called Dalmatia (History, Culture, Art Heritage) written by Antun Travirka.
| “ | By the 14th century the city had become wholly Croatian [21] | ” |
The book itself is primarily for the tourist market and is easily available in several languages. This quote is on page 137 and it’s referring to the Republic of Ragusa. The old Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) [22][23][24] is now within the borders of the modern Croatia. This monolithic description is an outright lie and it’s a form of cultural genocide (the crucial word is wholly). Additionally the book did not even use the term Republic of Ragusa (the closest that it got to this was RESPUBLICA RAGUSINA on page 141),[25] which was used for more than a millennium. The peoples of Ragusa were a nation in their own right; the Republic was also made up of many ethnic nationalities.[26][27] [28][29] The Republic was a Maritime nation that traded all over the Mediterranean and even had trade with the Americas. Additionally it was in competition with Venice itself.
- Statement made by the contemporary historian John Van Antwerp Fine:
| “ | This is not surprising since the “Ragusans” identified themselves as Ragusans and not as Croats.[30] | ” |
Concerning the former Yugoslavia (which Croatia was part of) the Cold War era played a major role in this style (Dalmatia -History, Culture, Art Heritage) of historical documentation of the region’s history. Yugoslav Communist history is now dogma in Croatia. Many of today’s Croatians live with this dogma as their reality even though the Berlin Wall fell in 1989. The Communist Party of Yugoslavia had a profound effect on the region. So much so that it’s created today’s political and cultural scene. [31]
- Statement made by the contemporary historian Danijel Dzino:
| “ | Medieval studies in Croatia and in most of the former Yugoslav space were firmly rooted in political history and suffered from isolationism and lack of interest in foreign scholarship. In the communist era, especially after the 1960s, Marxist ideology and national and Yugoslav political-ideological frameworks strongly impacted on the research into medieval history in Croatia [32] | ” |
- Statements made by the contemporary historian John Van Antwerp Fine (Professor Emeritus of History at the University of Michigan):
| “ | Such substitutions of “Croat” for” Slav,” however, mislead the reader into believing something the sources do not tell...[33]
|
” |
Note: Communist Yugoslavia executed Historian - Kerubin Segvic. He was executed mainly for proposing a different historic model than that of Yugoslav regime state policies of Croatians arriving in the Western Balkans.[35]
External links
References
- ^ A London Encyclopaedia: Or Universal Dictionary of Science, Art, Literature (p48)
- "In the latter ages of the Roman Empire this country suffered frequently from in-roads of Barbarians..."
- ^ The Changing Face of Dalmatia: Archaeological and Ecological Studies in a Mediterranean landscape by John Chapman, Robert Shiel & Sime Batovic
- "In chapters 29 and 30, two similar accounts are given for the fall of nearby Salona to the Avars and Slavs ..."
- ^ The Italians of Dalmatia: From Italian Unification to World War One by Luciano Monzali (p5)
- ^ Becoming Slav, Becoming Croat: Identity Transformations in Post-Roman and Early Medieval Dalmatia by Danijel Dzino (p212).
- Danijel Dzino states that the 19 century theories of mass movements of people into the old Roman Province of Dalmatia are questionable. Modern Archaeological and Scholarly research seems to be saying that we are looking at much smaller groups of Slavs and Avars invading the region. The term Slav was first used by the Byzantines and was written in the 6th century in Greek (Σκλαβῖνοι-Sklabenoi). Later in Latin it was written Sclaveni. According to Danijel Dzino the term Slavs was first used by outside observers of the day to describe the newcomers. The Slavs used the term to describe themselves at a later stage. Thus began the construct identity of the new arrivals. Later the Slavic peoples started to identify themselves and separated (or were separated by others) into different groups.
- ^ Becoming Slav, Becoming Croat: Identity Transformations in Post-Roman and Early Medieval Dalmatia by Danijel Dzino (p52).
- ^ The Illyrians by John Wilkes (p269)
- ^ Dalmatian Language-Dictionary
- ^ Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe by Glanville Price (p377)
- ^ University College London, School of Slavonic and East European Studies The Slavonic and East European Review-The Slavonic Latin Symbiosis in Dalmatia during the Middle Ages by Victor Novak
- ^ <templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>"Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911 Edition): Orography". 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-22. Check date values in:
|date=(help)- "OROGRAPHY: That part of physical geography which deals with the geological formation, the surface features and description of mountains. The terms "oreography," "orology" and "oreology" are also sometimes used.
- ^ The Italians of Dalmatia: From Italian Unification to World War One by Luciano Monzali (p8)
- ^ Dalmatia and Montenegro: With a journey to Mostar in Herzegovina.Volume 1 by Sir John Gardner Wilkinson (p4)
- ^ Dalmatia and Montenegro: With a journey to Mostar in Herzegovina.Volume 1 by Sir John Gardner Wilkinson (p362)
- ^ Researches on the Danube and the Adriatic, Volume 1 by Andrew Archibald Paton (p167)
- ^ Dalmatia: The Land Where East Meets West by Maude Holbach (p121)
- "DALMATIA: The Land Where East Meets West is MAUDE M. HOLBACH's second book of travel in Eastern Europe. First published in 1910, this is an anthropological travel journal of an often-overlooked kingdom" Web site: www.cosimobooks.com
- ^ <templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>""Yugoslavia." Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity. Ed. Dinah L. Shelton. Gale Cengage, 2005. eNotes.com. 2006. 24 Nov, 2010". 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-25. Check date values in:
|date=(help)- "Native German and Hungarian communities, seen as complicit with wartime occupation, were brutally treated; tantamount in some cases to ethnic cleansing. The Volksdeutsch settlements of Vojvodina and Slavonia largely disappeared. Perhaps 100,000 people—half the ethnic German population in Yugoslavia—fled in 1945, and many who remained were compelled to do forced labor, murdered, or later ransomed by West Germany. Some 20,000 Hungarians of Vojvodina were killed in reprisals. Albanian rebellions in Kosovo were suppressed, with prisoners sent on death marches towards the coast. An estimated 170,000 ethnic Italians fled to Italy in the late 1940s and 1950s. (All of these figures are highly approximate.)"
- ^ Ethnic Conflict: Causes, Consequences, and Responses by Karl Cordell & Stefan Wolff (p181)
- ^ Refugees in the Age of Total War by Anna Bramwell. (p 137)
- ^ A Tragedy Revealed The Story of the Italian Population of Istria & Dalmatia by Arrigo Petacco & Konrad Eisenbichler. (p81)
- ^ <templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>"Zadar – The postcards from the past". 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-25. Check date values in:
|date=(help) - ^ Dalmatia (History, Culture, Art Heritage) by Antun Travirka (p137)
- ^ ""Dubrovnik." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 08 Mar. 2011." (2011). Retrieved on 2011-03-8.
- Encyclopædia Britannica: "The city was founded about 614 as Rausa, or Ragusium, by Roman refugees fleeing the Slav and Avar sack of Epidaurus, just to the southeast. A colony of Slavs soon joined the Romans there, and from an early date the city formed a link between two great civilizations. After the fall of Rome, Dubrovnik was ruled by the Byzantine Empire. From the 9th to the 12th century Dubrovnik defended itself against foreign powers, and in the period 1205 to 1358 it acknowledged Venetian suzerainty, though it retained much of its independence."
- ^ ""Croatia." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 09 Mar. 2011." (2011). Retrieved on 2011-03-8.
- Encyclopædia Britannica: "Ragusa and the Croat Renaissance in Dalmatia: The Adriatic port of Ragusa had been founded by Latinized colonists, but by the 14th century it had been largely Slavicized and had acquired its alternate name of Dubrovnik."
- ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica (publ. 1911):
- "RAGUSA (Serbo-Croatian Dubrovnik), an episcopal city, and the centre of an administrative district in Dalmatia, Austria. Pop. (1900) of town and commune, 13,174,13,174, including a garrison of 1122. Its situation and its undisturbed atmosphere of antiquity combine to make Ragusa by far the most picturesque city on the Dalmatian coast. "
- "The city first became prominent during the 7th century. In 639 and 656 the flourishing Latin communities of Salona and Epidaurum were destroyed by the Avars, and the island rock of Ragusa was colonized by the survivors. Tradition identifies Epidaurum, whence the majority came, with the neighbouring village of Ragusavecchia; but some historians, including Gelcich, place it on the shores of the Bocche di Cattaro. Both sites show signs of Roman occupation. A colony of Slavs soon joined the Latin settlers at Ragusa, and thus, from an early date, the city formed a link between two great civilizations (see Vlachs). In the 9th century it is said to have repulsed the Saracens; in the 10th it defended itself against the Narentine pirates, and Simeon, Tsar of the Bulgarians."
- ^ Dalmatia (History, Culture, Art Heritage) by Antun Travirka (p141)
- ^ Jews, Christians, and Muslims in the Mediterranean World after 1492 By Alisa Meyuhas Ginio (p190)
- "This was the start of the Ragusan Jewish community. There had been some Jews in Ragusa ... their continuous presence in the Republic of Ragusa where they played an important role in its economic, cultural and social life. ..."
- ^ The Chicago Jewish forum, Volume 23 by Benjamin Weintroub (p271)
- "The Dubrovnik community was founded by Sephardic Jews who were expelled from Spain, and despite the customary discriminations then ... they fared quite well under the ancient Republic of Ragusa, as Dubrovnik was known originally."
- ^ Footprint Croatia by Jane Foster (p271)
- "Dubrovnik's Jewish community, first mentioned in 1352, grew in number after 1492 following the expulsion of Jews from Spain, ... Through the centuries it has been used as a customs office and the city mint (Ragusa minted its own money..."
- ^ Croatia by Michael Schuman
- "Dubrovnik also has a small mosque where the city's 4000 Muslims worship, and the nearby Serbian Orthodox Church, which by Dubrovnik standards is fairly new, dating to the 1800s."
- ^ Ethnicity did not Matter in the Balkans: by John Van Antwerp Fine (p157)
- ^ The Fragmentation of Yugoslavia: Nationalism and War in the Balkans by Aleksandar Pavkovic.(p 47)
- ^ Becoming Slav, Becoming Croat: Identity Transformations in Post-Roman and Early Medieval Dalmatia by Danijel Dzino (p43)
- ^ Ethnicity did not Matter in the Balkans: by John Van Antwerp Fine (p11)
- ^ When Ethnicity did not Matter in the Balkans by John Van Antwerp Fine (p15)
- ^ Becoming Slav, Becoming Croat: Identity Transformations in Post-Roman and Early Medieval Dalmatia by Danijel Dzino (p20)
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