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{{Redirect4|John Kennedy|JFK}}
{{Infobox_President
| name = John Fitzgerald Kennedy
| image = John_F_Kennedy1963.jpg
| order = 35th
| office = President of the United States
| term_start = [[January 20]], [[1961]]
| term_end = [[November 22]], [[1963]]
| vicepresident = [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]
| predecessor = [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]
| successor = [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]
| jr/sr2 = United States Senator
| state2 = [[Massachusetts]]
| term_start2 = [[January 3]], [[1953]]
| term_end2 = [[December 22]], [[1960]]
| preceded2 = [[Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.]]
| succeeded2 = [[Benjamin A. Smith II|Benjamin A. Smith]]
| state3 = Massachusetts
| district3 = [[Massachusetts's 11th congressional district|11th]]
| term_start3 = [[January 3]], [[1947]]
| term_end3 = [[January 3]], [[1953]]
| preceded3 = [[James Michael Curley]]
| succeeded3 = [[Thomas P. O'Neill, Jr.]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|1917|5|29|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Brookline, Massachusetts]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1963|11|22|1917|5|29}}
| death_place = [[Dallas, Texas]]
| spouse = [[Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis|Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy]]
| alma_mater = [[Harvard College]]
| party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| religion = [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]
| signature = John F. Kennedy signature.png
}}
'''John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy ''' ([[May 29]], [[1917]] – [[November 22]], [[1963]]), often referred to by his initials '''JFK''', was the [[List of Presidents of the United States|thirty-fifth]] [[President of the United States]], serving from 1961 until his [[John F. Kennedy assassination|assassination]] in 1963.
After Kennedy's military service as commander of the [[Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109|USS ''PT-109'']] during [[World War II]] in the [[South West Pacific Area|South Pacific]], his aspirations turned [[politics|political]], with the encouragement and grooming of his father. Kennedy represented the state of [[Massachusetts]] in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]] from 1947 to 1953 as a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]], and in the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] from 1953 until 1961. Kennedy defeated then [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] and Republican candidate [[Richard Nixon]] in the [[United States presidential election, 1960|1960 U.S. presidential election]], one of the closest in American history. He is the youngest man and the only practicing [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] to be elected president.<ref>[[Theodore Roosevelt]] was 9 months younger when he first assumed the presidency on [[September 14]], [[1901]], but he was not elected to the presidency until 1904, when he was 46.</ref> He is also the only president to have won a [[Pulitzer Prize]].<ref>[http://www.pulitzer.org/resources/faqs.html Pulitzer.org FAQ]</ref> Events during his administration include the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]], the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]], the building of the [[Berlin Wall]], the [[Space Race]], the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968)|American Civil Rights Movement]] and early events of the [[Vietnam War]].
[[John F. Kennedy assassination|Kennedy was assassinated]] on [[November 22]], [[1963]], in [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]], [[Texas]]. [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] was charged with the crime, but was murdered two days later by [[Jack Ruby]] before he could be put on trial. The [[Warren Commission]] concluded that Oswald had acted alone in killing the president; however, the [[House Select Committee on Assassinations]] declared in 1979 that there was more likely a [[conspiracy (political)|conspiracy]] that included Oswald. The entire subject remains [[controversy|controversial]], with multiple theories about the assassination still being debated. The event proved to be an important moment in [[history of the United States|U.S. history]] because of its impact on the nation and the ensuing political repercussions. Today, Kennedy continues to rank highly in [[Historical rankings of United States Presidents|public opinion ratings]] of former U.S. presidents.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/presidents/35_kennedy/kennedy_legacy.html American Experience: John F. Kennedy], [[PBS]]. Retrieved on [[February 25]] [[2007]].</ref>
==Early life and education==
Kennedy was born at 83 Beals Street in [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] on Tuesday, [[May 29]], [[1917]], at 3:00 p.m.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nps.gov/jofi/faqs.htm |title= John Fitzgerald Kennedy National Historic site |accessdate=2008-02-08 |format= HHTML}}</ref>, the second son of [[Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr.]], and [[Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy|Rose Fitzgerald]]; Rose, in turn, was the eldest child of [[John F. Fitzgerald|John "Honey Fitz" Fitzgerald]], a prominent [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] political figure who was the city's mayor and a three-term member of [[United States Congress|Congress]]. Kennedy, who was to be the first U.S. president born in the twentieth century, lived in Brookline for his first ten years of life. He attended Brookline's public [[Edward Devotion School]] from kindergarten through the beginning of 3rd grade, then [[Noble and Greenough School|Noble and Greenough]] Lower School and its successor, the [[Dexter School]], a private school for boys, through 4th grade. In September 1927, Kennedy moved with his family to a rented 20-room mansion in [[Riverdale, Bronx]], [[New York City]], then two years later moved five miles (8 km) northeast to a 21-room mansion on a six-acre estate in [[Bronxville, New York]], purchased in May 1929. He was a member of Scout Troop 2 at Bronxville from 1929 to 1931 and was to be the first Scout to become President.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/John+F.+Kennedy+Miscellaneous+Information.htm |title=John F. Kennedy Miscellaneous Information |accessdate=2007-09-17 |work=JFK library}}</ref> Kennedy spent summers with his family at [[Kennedy Compound|their home]] in [[Hyannis Port, Massachusetts]], also purchased in 1929, and Christmas and Easter holidays with his family at their winter home in [[Palm Beach, Florida]], purchased in 1933. In his primary school years, he attended [[Riverdale Country School]], a private school for boys in Riverdale, for 5th through 7th grade.
For 8th grade in September 1930, the 13-year old Kennedy was sent fifty miles away to [[Canterbury School (Connecticut)|Canterbury School]], a lay Catholic boarding school for boys in [[New Milford, Connecticut]]. In late April 1931, he had [[appendicitis]] requiring an [[appendectomy]], after which he withdrew from Canterbury and recuperated at home. In September 1931, Kennedy was sent over sixty miles away to [[Choate Rosemary Hall|The Choate School]], an elite private [[university-preparatory school|university preparatory]] boarding school for boys in [[Wallingford, Connecticut]] for 9th through 12th grades, following his older brother, [[Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr.|Joe Jr.]], who was two years ahead of him. In January 1934 during his junior year at Choate, he became ill, lost a lot of weight, was hospitalized at [[Yale-New Haven Hospital]] until Easter, and spent most of June 1934 hospitalized at the [[Mayo Clinic]] in [[Rochester, Minnesota]] for evaluation of [[colitis]].
He graduated from Choate in June 1935. Kennedy's superlative in his yearbook was "Most likely to become President". In September 1935, he sailed on the [[SS Normandie|SS ''Normandie'']] on his first trip abroad with his parents and his sister [[Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington|Kathleen]] to [[London, England|London]] with the intent of studying for a year with Professor [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]] (LSE) as his older brother Joe had done, but after a brief hospitalization with [[jaundice]] after less than a week at LSE, he sailed back to America only three weeks after he had arrived. In October 1935, Kennedy enrolled late and spent six weeks at [[Princeton University]], but was then hospitalized for two months observation for possible [[leukemia]] at [[Brigham and Women's Hospital|Peter Bent Brigham Hospital]] in Boston in January and February 1936. He recuperated at the Kennedy winter home in Palm Beach in March and April, spent May and June working as a ranch hand on a 40,000 acre (160 km²) [[cattle ranch]] outside [[Benson, Arizona]], then July and August racing sailboats at the Kennedy summer home in Hyannis Port.
In September 1936 he enrolled as a freshman at [[Harvard College]], residing in [[Winthrop House]] during his sophomore through senior years, again following two years behind his older brother Joe. In early July 1937, Kennedy took his [[convertible]], sailed on the [[SS Washington|SS ''Washington'']] to France, and spent ten weeks driving with a friend through France, Italy, Germany, Holland and England. In late June 1938, Kennedy sailed with his father and his brother Joe on the SS ''Normandie'' to spend July working with his father, recently appointed U.S. Ambassador to the [[Court of St. James]] by President Roosevelt, at the [[Embassy of the United States in London|American embassy in London]], and August with his family at a villa near [[Cannes]]. From February through September 1939, Kennedy toured Europe, the [[Soviet Union]], the [[Balkans]] and the [[Middle East]] to gather background information for his Harvard senior honors thesis. He spent the last ten days of August in [[Czechoslovakia]] and [[Germany]] before returning to London on [[September 1]], [[1939]], the day [[Invasion of Poland (1939)|Germany invaded Poland]]. On [[September 3]], [[1939]], Kennedy and his family were in attendance at the [[Strangers Gallery]] of the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] to hear speeches in support of the [[United Kingdom]]'s declaration of war on Germany. Kennedy was sent as his father's representative to help with arrangements for American survivors of the [[SS Athenia|SS ''Athenia'']], before flying back to the U.S. on [[Pan American World Airways|Pan Am]]'s ''[[Boeing 314|Dixie Clipper]]'' from [[Foynes|Foynes, Ireland]] to [[Port Washington, New York]] on his first transatlantic flight at the end of September.
In 1940, Kennedy completed his thesis, "Appeasement in Munich," about British participation in the [[Munich Agreement]]. He initially intended his thesis to be private, but his father encouraged him to publish it as a book. He graduated ''[[Latin honors|cum laude]]'' from Harvard with a degree in [[International relations|international affairs]] in June 1940, and his thesis was published in July 1940 as a book entitled ''[[Why England Slept]]'',<ref>{{cite book | last = Kennedy | first = John F. | authorlink = John F. Kennedy | title = Why England Slept | publisher = Greenwood Press Reprint | date= 1981-10-16 | url = http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24144268 | isbn = 978-0313228742}}</ref> and became a [[bestseller]].<ref>{{cite web|title = Why England Slept|work = Museum Store|publisher = John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum|url = http://www.jfklibrary.org/store/detail.aspx?ProdID=67&Category=books|accessdate = 2006-09-19}}; [[Jean Edward Smith]], "Kennedy and Defense: The Formative Years", ''Air University Review'', (Mar-Apr, 1967) </ref>
From September to December 1940, Kennedy was enrolled and audited classes at the [[Stanford Graduate School of Business]]. In early 1941, he helped his father complete the writing of a memoir of his three years as an American ambassador. In May and June 1941, Kennedy traveled throughout [[South America]].
==Military service==
{{main|Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109}}
In the spring of 1941, Kennedy volunteered for the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]], but was rejected, mainly because of his troublesome back. Nevertheless, in September of that year, the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] accepted him, due to the influence of the director of the [[Office of Naval Intelligence]] (ONI), a former naval [[attaché]] to the [[Ambassador]], his father. As an [[ensign (rank)|ensign]], Kennedy served in the office which supplied bulletins and briefing information for the [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]. It was during this assignment that the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] occurred. He attended the Naval Reserve Officers Training School and Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Training Center before being assigned for duty in [[Panama]] and eventually the [[Pacific theater]]. He participated in various commands in the Pacific theater and earned the rank of [[lieutenant]], commanding a [[PT boat|patrol torpedo (PT) boat]].<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq60-2.htm |title=Lieutenant John F. Kennedy, USN |accessdate=2007-09-17 |date=2002-06-18 |work=Naval Historical Center}}</ref>
[[Image:Lt. John F. Kennedy aboard the PT-109.jpg|225px|thumb|left|Lt. Kennedy on his navy patrol boat, the ''PT-109'']]
On [[August 2]], [[1943]], Kennedy's boat, the ''PT-109'', was taking part in a nighttime patrol near [[New Georgia]] in the [[Solomon Islands]]. It was rammed by the [[Japanese destroyer Amagiri|Japanese destroyer ''Amagiri'']].<ref> Hove, Duane (2003) ''American Warriors: Five Presidents in the Pacific Theater of World War II Bard Street Press ISBN 1-57249-307-0 </ref><ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.americanwarriorsfivepresidents.com/ |title= Five Presidents in the Pacific Theater of World War II |accessdate=2007-09-17 |last=Hove |first=Duane T}}</ref> Kennedy was thrown across the deck, injuring his already-troubled back. Nonetheless, he swam, towing a wounded man, to an island and later to a second island where his crew was subsequently rescued. For these actions, Kennedy received the [[Navy and Marine Corps Medal]] under the following citation:
<blockquote>'' For extremely heroic conduct as Commanding Officer of Motor Torpedo Boat 109 following the collision and sinking of that vessel in the Pacific War Theater on August 1-2, 1943. Unmindful of personal danger, Lieutenant (then [[Lieutenant, Junior Grade]]) Kennedy unhesitatingly braved the difficulties and hazards of darkness to direct rescue operations, swimming many hours to secure aid and food after he had succeeded in getting his crew ashore. His outstanding courage, endurance and leadership contributed to the saving of several lives and were in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.''</blockquote>
Kennedy's other decorations in [[World War II]] included the [[Purple Heart]], [[Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal]] and the [[World War II Victory Medal]]. He was honorably discharged in early 1945, just a few months before [[Japan]] surrendered. The incident was popularized when he became president and would be the subject of several magazine articles, books, comic books, TV specials and a feature length movie, making the ''PT-109'' one of the most famous U.S. Navy ships of the war. Scale models and even [[G.I. Joe]] figures based on the incident were still being produced in the 2000s. The coconut which was used to scrawl a rescue message given to [[Biuki Gasa|Solomon Islander scouts]] who found him was kept on his presidential desk and is still at the [[John F. Kennedy Library]].
During his presidency, Kennedy privately admitted to friends that he didn't feel that he deserved the medals he had received, because the ''PT-109'' incident had been the result of a botched military operation that had cost the lives of two members of his crew. When later asked by a reporter how he became a war hero, Kennedy (known for a sense of humor) joked: "It was involuntary. They sank my boat."
In May 2002, a [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] expedition found what is believed to be the wreckage of the ''PT-109'' in the Solomon Islands. <ref>Ted Chamberlain ([[July 11]], [[2002]]) [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/07/0709_020710_kennedyPT109.html ''JFK's PT-109 Found, U.S. Navy Confirms''] ([[National Geographic News]]).</ref>
==Early political career==
After World War II, Kennedy had considered the option of becoming a journalist before deciding to run for political office. Prior to the war, he had not strongly considered becoming a politician as a career, because his family, especially his father, had already pinned its political hopes on his older brother. Joseph, however, was killed in World War II, giving John seniority. When in 1946 U.S. Representative [[James Michael Curley]] vacated his seat in an overwhelmingly Democratic district to become mayor of Boston, Kennedy ran for the seat, beating his Republican opponent by a large margin. He was a congressman for six years but had a mixed voting record, often diverging from President [[Harry S. Truman]] and the rest of the Democratic Party. In 1952, he defeated incumbent Republican [[Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.]] for the U.S. Senate.
Kennedy married [[Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis|Jacqueline Lee Bouvier]] on [[September 12]], [[1953]]. He underwent several spinal operations over the following two years, nearly dying (in all he received the Catholic Church's [[Anointing of the Sick|"last rites"]] four times during his life), and was often absent from the Senate. During his convalescence, he wrote ''[[Profiles in Courage]]'', a book describing eight instances in which U.S. Senators risked their careers by standing by their personal beliefs. The book was awarded the [[Pulitzer Prize]] for Biography in 1957.<ref name="Jean3"/>
In [[United States presidential election, 1956|the 1956 presidential election]], presidential nominee [[Adlai Stevenson]] left the choice of a Vice Presidential nominee to the [[1956 Democratic National Convention|Democratic convention]], and Kennedy finished second in that balloting to Senator [[Estes Kefauver]] of Tennessee. Despite this defeat, Kennedy received national exposure from that episode that would prove valuable in subsequent years. His father, Joseph Kennedy, Sr., pointed out that it was just as well that John did not get that nomination, as some people sought to blame anything they could on Catholics, even though it was privately known that any Democrat would have trouble running against Eisenhower in 1956.
John F. Kennedy voted for final passage of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1957]] after having earlier voted for the "Jury Trial Amendment", which effectively rendered the Act toothless because convictions for violations could not be obtained. Staunch [[segregationist]]s such as senators [[James Eastland]] and [[John McClellan]] and [[Mississippi]] Governor [[James Coleman]] were early supporters of Kennedy's presidential campaign.<ref>T. Reeves, ''A Question of Character'', p.140.</ref> In 1958, Kennedy was re-elected to a second term in the United States Senate, defeating his Republican opponent, Boston lawyer Vincent J. Celeste, by a wide margin.
Years later, it was revealed that in September 1947 when he was 30 years old and during his first term as a congressman, Kennedy had been diagnosed by Sir Daniel Davis at The [[London]] Clinic with [[Addison's disease]], a rare endocrine disorder. The nature of this and other medical problems were kept secret from the press and public throughout Kennedy's lifetime and Presidential tenure.<ref>Online NewsHour with Senior Correspondent [[Ray Suarez]] and physician Jeffrey Kelman, [http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/health/july-dec02/jfk_11-18.html Pres. Kennedy's Health Secrets], ''[[The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer]] transcript'', [[November 18]], [[2002]]</ref>
Sen. [[Joseph McCarthy]] was a friend of the Kennedy family: Joe Kennedy was a leading McCarthy supporter; [[Robert F. Kennedy]] worked for McCarthy's subcommittee, and McCarthy dated [[Patricia Kennedy Lawford|Patricia Kennedy]]. In 1954, when the Senate was poised to condemn McCarthy, John Kennedy drafted a speech calling for McCarthy's censure, but never delivered it. When on [[December 2]], [[1954]], the Senate rendered its highly publicized decision to censure McCarthy, Senator Kennedy was in the hospital. Though absent, Kennedy could have "paired" his vote against that of another senator, but chose not to; neither did he ever indicate then nor later how he would have voted. The episode seriously damaged Kennedy's support in the liberal community, especially with [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], as late as the 1960 election.<ref>O'Brien (2005) 274–79, 394–99. </ref>
==1960 presidential election==
{{main|United States presidential election, 1960}}
[[Image:Jfk-appleton.jpg|thumb|left|John and Jackie Kennedy campaigning in [[Appleton, Wisconsin]], March 1960]]
On [[January 2]], [[1960]], Kennedy officially declared his intent to run for President of the United States. In the Democratic [[primary election]], he faced challenges from Senator [[Hubert Humphrey]] of [[Minnesota]] and Senator [[Wayne Morse]] of [[Oregon]]. Kennedy defeated Humphrey in [[Wisconsin]] and [[West Virginia]] and Morse in [[Maryland]] and Oregon, although Morse's candidacy is often forgotten by historians. He also defeated token opposition (often write-in candidates) in [[New Hampshire]], [[Indiana]] and [[Nebraska]]. In West Virginia, Kennedy visited a [[coal mine]] and talked to mine workers to win their support; most people in that [[American conservatism|conservative]], mostly [[Protestant]] state were deeply suspicious of Kennedy's Catholicism. His victory in West Virginia cemented his credentials as a candidate with broad popular appeal. At the Democratic Convention, he gave the well-known "[[New Frontier]]," which represented the changes America and the rest of the world would be going through.
With Humphrey and Morse out of the race, Kennedy's main opponent at the convention in Los Angeles was Senator [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] of [[Texas]]. [[Adlai Stevenson]], the Democratic nominee in 1952 and 1956, was not officially running but had broad grassroots support inside and outside the convention hall. Senator [[Stuart Symington]] of Missouri was also a candidate, as were several [[favorite son]]s. On [[July 13]], [[1960]], the Democratic convention nominated Kennedy as its candidate for President. Kennedy asked Johnson to be his Vice Presidential candidate, despite opposition from many liberal delegates and Kennedy's own staff, including Robert Kennedy. He needed Johnson's strength in the [[Southern United States|South]] to win what was considered likely to be the closest election since [[United States presidential election, 1916|1916]]. Major issues included how to get the economy moving again, Kennedy's Catholicism, [[Cuba]], and whether the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] space and missile programs had surpassed those of the U.S. To address fears that his Catholicism would impact his decision-making, he famously told the Greater Houston Ministerial Association on [[September 12]], [[1960]], "I am not the Catholic candidate for President. I am the Democratic Party's candidate for President who also happens to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters — and the Church does not speak for me."<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/jfkhoustonministers.html |title=Address to the Greater Houston Ministerial Association |accessdate=2007-09-17 |last=Kennedy |first=John F. |date=2002-06-18 |work=American Rhetoric}}</ref> Kennedy also brought up the point of whether one-quarter of Americans were relegated to second-class citizenship just because they were Catholic.
In September and October, Kennedy debated Republican candidate and Vice President Richard Nixon in the first televised [[U.S. presidential election debates|U.S. presidential debates]] in U.S. history. During these programs, Nixon, nursing an injured leg and sporting "[[five o'clock shadow]]", looked tense and uncomfortable, while Kennedy appeared relaxed, leading the huge television audience to deem Kennedy the winner. Radio listeners, however, either thought Nixon had won or that the debates were a draw.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/K/htmlK/kennedy-nixon/kennedy-nixon.htm |title=THE KENNEDY-NIXON PRESIDENTIAL DEBATES, 1960 |accessdate=2007-09-18 |last=Tyner Allen |first=Erika |work=museum.tv}}</ref> Nixon did not wear make-up during the initial debate, unlike Kennedy. The debates are now considered a milestone in American political history--the point at which the medium of television began to play a dominant role in national politics.<ref name=Jean3> {{cite web|url=http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1967/mar-apr/smith.html |title=Kennedy and Defense The formative years |accessdate=2007-09-18 |last=Edward Smith |first=Dr. Jean |date=1967-03 |work=Air University Review}}</ref> After the first debate Kennedy's campaign gained momentum and he pulled slightly ahead of Nixon in most polls. On Tuesday, November 8, Kennedy defeated Nixon in one of the closest presidential elections of the twentieth century. In the national popular vote Kennedy led Nixon by just two-tenths of one percent (49.7% to 49.5%), while in the [[Electoral College]] he won 303 votes to Nixon's 219 (269 were needed to win). Another 14 electors from [[Mississippi]] and [[Alabama]] refused to support Kennedy because of his support for the [[civil rights movement]]; they voted for Senator [[Harry F. Byrd, Sr.]] of Virginia.
==Presidency (1961–1963)==
{{wikisource|John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address}}
John F. Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th [[President of the United States|President]] at noon on [[January 20]], [[1961]]. In [[Inaugural address of John F. Kennedy|his inaugural address]] he spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens, famously saying, "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." He also asked the nations of the world to join together to fight what he called the "common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself." In closing, he expanded on his desire for greater [[Internationalism (politics)|internationalism]]:
"Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you."<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Speeches/JFK/003POF03Inaugural01201961.htm |title=Inaugural Address of President John F. Kennedy |accessdate=2007-09-18 |date=1961-01-20 |work=JFK library}}</ref>
===Foreign policy===
====Cuba and the Bay of Pigs Invasion====
{{main|Bay of Pigs Invasion}}
Prior to Kennedy's election to the presidency, the Eisenhower Administration created a plan to overthrow the [[Fidel Castro]] regime in Cuba. Central to such a plan, which was structured and detailed by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) with minimal input from the [[United States Department of State]], was the arming of a counter-revolutionary insurgency composed of anti-Castro Cubans.<ref name = "Schlesinger-Kennedy">Schlesinger, Robert Kennedy and His Times</ref> U.S.-trained Cuban insurgents were to invade Cuba and instigate an uprising among the Cuban people in hopes of removing Castro from power. On [[April 17]], [[1961]], Kennedy ordered the previously planned invasion of Cuba to proceed. With support from the CIA, in what is known as the Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1,500 U.S.-trained Cuban exiles, called "Brigade 2506," returned to the island in the hope of deposing Castro. However, Kennedy ordered the invasion to take place without U.S. air support. By [[April 19]], [[1961]], the Cuban government had captured or killed the invading exiles, and Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release of the 1,189 survivors. The failure of the plan originated in a lack of dialog among the military leadership, a result of which was the complete lack of naval support in the face of organized artillery troops on the island who easily incapacitated the exile force as it landed on the beach.<ref name = "Schlesinger-Kennedy"/> After twenty months, Cuba released the captured exiles in exchange for $53 million worth of food and medicine. Furthermore, the incident made Castro wary of the U.S. and led him to believe that another invasion would occur.<ref> [[Jean Edward Smith]], "Bay of Pigs: The Unanswered Questions", ''The Nation'', [[April 13]], [[1964]]</ref>
====Cuban Missile Crisis====
{{main|Cuban Missile Crisis}}
[[Image:EXCOMM meeting, Cuban Missile Crisis, 29 October 1962.jpg|thumb|left|Kennedy's Cabinet meets during the Cuban Missile Crisis, [[October 29]], [[1962]]]]
[[Image:Khrushchev Kennedy 1962 Wien.jpg|thumb|right|Greeting [[Nikita Khrushchev]] in Vienna in 1961]]
[[Image:John Kennedy, Nikita Khrushchev 1961.jpg|thumb|right|Meeting [[Nikita Khrushchev]] in 1961]]
The Cuban Missile Crisis began on [[October 14]], [[1962]], when American [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] [[spy plane]]s took photographs of a Soviet intermediate-range ballistic missile site under construction in Cuba. The photos were shown to Kennedy on [[October 16]], [[1962]]. America would soon be posed with a serious nuclear threat. Kennedy faced a [[dilemma]]: if the U.S. attacked the sites, it might lead to [[Nuclear warfare|nuclear war]] with the [[U.S.S.R.]], but if the U.S. did nothing, it would endure the threat of nuclear weapons being launched from close range. Because the weapons were in such proximity, the U.S. might have been unable to retaliate if they were launched pre-emptively. Another consideration was that the U.S. would appear to the world as weak in its own [[Western Hemisphere|hemisphere]].
Many military officials and cabinet members pressed for an air assault on the missile sites, but Kennedy ordered a naval quarantine in which the U.S. Navy inspected all ships arriving in Cuba. He began negotiations with the Soviets and ordered the Soviets to remove all defensive material that was being built on Cuba. Without doing so, the Soviet and Cuban peoples would face naval quarantine. A week later, he and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev reached an agreement. Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles subject to U.N. inspections if the U.S. publicly promised never to invade Cuba and quietly removed US missiles stationed in Turkey. Following this crisis, which brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any point before or since, Kennedy was more cautious in confronting the Soviet Union.
====Latin America and communism====
{{main|Kennedy and Latin America}}
Arguing that "those who make peaceful revolution impossible, will make violent revolution inevitable,"<ref>JFK's "Address on the First Anniversary of the Alliance for Progress," White House reception for diplomatic corps of the Latin American republics, March 13, 1962. ''Public Papers of the Presidents'' - John F. Kennedy (1962), p. 223.</ref> Kennedy sought to contain [[communism]] in [[Latin America]] by establishing the [[Alliance for Progress]], which sent [[foreign aid]] to troubled countries in the region and sought greater [[human rights]] standards in the region. He worked closely with [[Puerto Rican]] [[Governor of Puerto Rico|Governor]] [[Luis Muñoz Marín]] for the development of the Alliance of Progress, as well as developments in the autonomy of the Commonwealth of [[Puerto Rico]].
====Peace Corps====
As one of his first presidential acts, Kennedy created the [[Peace Corps]]. Through this program, Americans volunteered to help underdeveloped nations in areas such as [[education]], [[farming]], [[health care]] and [[construction]].
====Vietnam====
In South East Asia, Kennedy followed Eisenhower's lead by using limited military action to fight the Communist forces ostensibly led by [[Ho Chi Minh]]. Proclaiming a fight against the spread of Communism, Kennedy enacted policies providing political, economic, and military support for the unstable French-installed [[South Vietnam]]ese government, which included sending 16,000 military advisors and U.S. Special Forces to the area. Kennedy also agreed to the use of [[free-fire zone]]s, [[napalm]], [[defoliant]]s and [[jet plane]]s. U.S. involvement in the area continually escalated until regular U.S. forces were directly fighting the [[Vietnam War]] in the next administration. The Kennedy Administration increased military support, but the South Vietnamese military was unable to make headway against the pro-independence [[Viet-Minh]] and [[Viet Cong]] forces. By July 1963, Kennedy faced a crisis in Vietnam. The Administration's response was to assist in the [[coup d'état]] of the Catholic President of South Vietnam, [[Ngo Dinh Diem]].<ref>LeFeber, "America, Russia and the Cold War", p.233)</ref> In 1963, South Vietnamese generals overthrew the Diem government, arresting Diem and later killing him (though the exact circumstances of his death remain unclear)<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB101/vn28.pdf |title=Press Version of How Diem and Nhu Died |accessdate=2007-09-18 |date=1963-11-12 |format=PDF |work=Central Intelligence Agency Office of current intelligence |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> Kennedy sanctioned Diem's overthrow. One reason for the support was a fear that Diem might negotiate a neutralist coalition government which included Communists, as had occurred in [[Laos]] in 1962. [[Dean Rusk]], Secretary of State, remarked "This kind of neutralism…is tantamount to surrender."
It remains a point of controversy among historians whether or not Vietnam would have escalated to the point it did had Kennedy served out his full term and possibly been re-elected in 1964.<ref> Joseph Ellis, "Making Vietnam History ", ''Reviews in American History'' 28.4 (2000) 625–629 </ref> Fueling this speculation are statements made by Kennedy's and Johnson's Secretary of Defense [[Robert McNamara]] that Kennedy was strongly considering pulling out of Vietnam after the 1964 election. In the film "[[The Fog of War]]", not only does McNamara say this, but a tape recording of Lyndon Johnson confirms that Kennedy was planning to withdraw from Vietnam, a position Johnson states he disapproved of.<ref> The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara</ref> Additional evidence is Kennedy's National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) #263 on [[October 11]], [[1963]] that gave the order for withdrawal of 1,000 military personnel by the end of 1963. Nevertheless, given the stated reason for the overthrow of the Diem government, such action would have been a dramatic policy reversal, but Kennedy was generally moving in a less hawkish direction in the Cold War since his acclaimed speech about World Peace at American University the previous [[June 10]], [[1963]].
After Kennedy's assassination, new President Lyndon B. Johnson immediately reversed his predecessor's order to withdraw 1,000 military personnel by the end of 1963 with his own NSAM #273 on [[November 26]], [[1963]].
====West Berlin speech====
[[Image:John F. Kennedy meeting with Willy Brandt, March 13, 1961.jpg|thumb|left|Kennedy meeting with [[West Berlin]] governing mayor [[Willy Brandt]], March 1961]]{{wikisource|Ich bin ein Berliner|JFK's Ich bin ein Berliner speech}}
Under simultaneous and opposing pressures from the Allies and the Soviets, Germany was divided. The [[Berlin Wall]] separated West and East Berlin, the latter being under the control of the Soviets. On [[June 26]], [[1963]], Kennedy visited [[West Berlin]] and gave a public speech criticizing communism. Kennedy used the construction of the [[Berlin Wall]] as an example of the failures of communism: "[[Freedom (political)|Freedom]] has many difficulties and [[democracy]] is not perfect, but we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in." The speech is known for its famous phrase ''"[[Ich bin ein Berliner]]"''. Nearly five-sixths of the population was on the street when Kennedy said the famous phrase. He remarked to aides afterwards: "We'll never have another day like this one."<ref> [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''The Defense of Berlin'', Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963; [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''The Wall as Watershed'', Arlington, Virginia: Institute for Defense Analysis, 1966. </ref>
====Nuclear Test Ban Treaty====
Troubled by the long-term dangers of [[radioactive contamination]] and [[nuclear proliferation|nuclear weapons proliferation]], Kennedy pushed for the adoption of a Limited or [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]], which prohibited atomic testing on the ground, in the atmosphere, or underwater, but did not prohibit testing underground. The United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union were the initial signatories to the treaty. Kennedy signed the treaty into law in August 1963.
====Ireland====
{{see|The Ireland Funds}}
[[Image:JFKIreland2.jpg|right|thumb|President Kennedy in motorcade in Ireland on [[June 27]], [[1963]]]]
On the occasion of his visit to [[Ireland]] in 1963, President Kennedy joined with Irish President [[Éamon de Valera]] to form The American Irish Foundation. The mission of this organization was to foster connections between Americans of Irish descent and the country of their ancestry. Kennedy furthered these connections of cultural solidarity by accepting a grant of [[armorial bearings]] from the [[Chief Herald of Ireland]]. Kennedy had near-legendary status in Ireland, as the first person of Irish heritage to have a position of world power. Irish citizens who were alive in 1963 often have very strong memories of Kennedy's momentous visit.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/27/newsid_4461000/4461115.stm |title=1963: Warm welcome for JFK in Ireland |accessdate=2007-10-04 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref> He also visited the original cottage where previous Kennedys had lived before emigrating to America, and said: "This is where it all began …" On [[December 22]], [[2006]], the Irish Justice Department released declassified police documents that indicated that Kennedy was the subject of three death threats during this visit. It was interpreted as a hoax.<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20061229/ai_n17092126 JFK faced 3 death threats during '63 visit to Ireland | Deseret News (Salt Lake City) | Find Articles at BNET.com<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
====Iraq====
In 1963, the Kennedy administration backed a coup against the government of [[Iraq]] headed by [[Abd al-Karim Qasim|General Abdel Karim Kassem]], who five years earlier had deposed the Western-allied Iraqi monarchy. The CIA helped the new [[Baath Party]] government led by [[Abdul Salam Arif]] in ridding the country of suspected leftists and Communists. In a [[Baathist]] bloodbath, the government used lists of suspected Communists and other leftists provided by the CIA, to systematically murder untold numbers of Iraq's educated elite — killings in which [[Saddam Hussein]] himself is said to have participated. The victims included hundreds of doctors, teachers, technicians, lawyers and other professionals as well as military and political figures.<ref name=saddam> {{cite web|url=http://readthese.blogspot.com/2003_12_15_readthese_archive.html |title=A Tyrant 40 Years in the Making |accessdate=2007-09-18 |date=2003-12-15 |work=NEW YORK TIMES}}</ref><ref>"The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq", Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978; Peter and Marion Sluglett, "Iraq Since 1958" London, I.B. Taurus, 1990</ref><ref>Regarding the CIA's "Health Alteration Committee's work in Iraq, see U.S. Senate's Church Committee Interim Report on Assassination, page 181, Note 1 </ref> According to an [[op-ed]] in the New York Times, the U.S. sent arms to the new regime, weapons later used against the same [[Kurd]]ish insurgents the U.S. supported against Kassem and then abandoned. American and UK oil and other interests, including [[Mobil]], [[Bechtel]] and [[British Petroleum]], were conducting business in Iraq.<ref name="saddam"/>
===Domestic policy===
Kennedy called his domestic program the "[[New Frontier]]". It ambitiously promised federal funding for [[education]], [[medical care]] for the elderly, and government intervention to halt the recession. Kennedy also promised an end to [[racial discrimination]]. In 1963, he proposed a [[tax reform]] which included income [[tax cuts]], but this was not passed by Congress until 1964, after his death. Few of Kennedy's major programs passed Congress during his lifetime, although, under his successor Johnson, Congress did vote them through in 1964–65.
====Federal death penalty====
As President, Kennedy oversaw the last pre-[[Furman v. Georgia|Furman]] federal execution,<ref>[http://users.bestweb.net/~rg/execution/DATA%20FEDERAL.htm Executions 1790 to 1963]</ref> and, as of 2008, the last military execution. [[Governor of Iowa]] [[Harold Hughes]], an death penalty opponent, personally contacted Kennedy to request clemency for [[Victor Feguer]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9800E3DF1F38F935A35756C0A9679C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2 |title= Federal Executions Have Been Rare but May Increase |date=[[May 6]], [[2001]] |author=Carey Goldberg |work=The New York Times}}</ref> who was sentenced to death by a federal court in Iowa, but Kennedy turned down the request<ref>[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/feguer3.html Letter from Kennedy to the Attorney General]</ref> and Feguer was executed on [[March 15]], [[1963]].
====Civil rights====
[[Image:JFK delivers State of the Union Address, 14 January 1963.jpg|thumb|left|Kennedy delivers the 1963 [[State of the Union Address]], [[January 14]]]]
The turbulent end of state-sanctioned racial discrimination was one of the most pressing domestic issues of Kennedy's era. The [[United States Supreme Court]] had ruled in 1954 that [[racial segregation]] in public schools was unconstitutional. However, many schools, especially in southern states, did not obey the Supreme Court's judgment. Segregation on buses, in restaurants, movie theaters, bathrooms, and other public places remained. Kennedy supported [[racial integration]] and civil rights, and during the 1960 campaign he telephoned [[Coretta Scott King]], wife of the jailed Reverend [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]], which perhaps drew some additional black support to his candidacy. John and Robert Kennedy's intervention secured the early release of King from jail.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.lib.lsu.edu/hum/mlk/srs216.html |title= Martin Luther King, Jr. Chronology |accessdate=2007-09-20 |last=Brown |first=Mitchell |publisher=[[Louisiana State University]]}}</ref>
In 1962, [[James Meredith]] tried to enroll at the [[University of Mississippi]], but he was prevented from doing so by white students. Kennedy responded by sending some 400 [[federal marshals]] and 3,000 troops to ensure that Meredith could enroll in his first class. Kennedy also assigned federal marshals to protect [[Freedom Riders]].
As President, Kennedy initially believed the grassroots movement for civil rights would only anger many Southern whites and make it even more difficult to pass civil rights laws through Congress, which was dominated by Southern Democrats, and he distanced himself
from it. As a result, many civil rights leaders viewed Kennedy as unsupportive of their efforts.
On [[June 11]], [[1963]], President Kennedy intervened when [[Alabama]] Governor [[George Wallace]] blocked the doorway to the [[University of Alabama]] to stop two [[African American]] students, [[Vivian Malone]] and [[James Hood]], from enrolling. George Wallace moved aside after being confronted by federal marshals, Deputy Attorney General [[Nicholas Katzenbach]] and the Alabama [[United States National Guard|National Guard]]. That evening Kennedy gave his famous civil rights address on national television and radio.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/jfkcivilrights.htm |title=Civil Rights Address |accessdate=2007-09-20 |last=Kennedy |first=John F. |work=AmericanRhetoric.com}}</ref> Kennedy proposed what would become the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]].<ref> {{cite web|url=http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/39.htmights.htm |title=CIVIL RIGHTS ACT |accessdate=2007-09-20 |work=usinfo.state.gov}}</ref>
The modern feminist movement began <ref>* Davis, F. (1999). ''Moving the mountain: The women's movement in America since 1960''. Chicago: University of Illinois.
* Martin, J. M. (2003). ''The presidency and women: Promise, performance, and illusion''. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M.
</ref>when Kennedy signed the Executive Order creating the [[Presidential Commission on the Status of Women]] in 1961. Commission statistics revealed that women were also experiencing discrimination. Their final report doccumenting legal and cultural barriers was issued in October 1963, a month before Kennedy's assassination.
====Immigration====
John F. Kennedy initially proposed an overhaul of American immigration policy that later was to become the [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965]], sponsored by Kennedy's brother Senator [[Ted Kennedy|Edward Kennedy]]. It dramatically shifted the source of immigration from Northern and Western European countries towards immigration from Latin America and Asia and shifted the emphasis of selection of immigrants towards facilitating family reunification.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5393857 |title=Q&A: Sen. Kennedy on Immigration, Then & Now |accessdate=2007-09-20 |last=Ludden |first=Jennifer |work=NPR}}</ref> Kennedy wanted to dismantle the selection of immigrants based on country of origin and saw this as an extension of his civil rights policies.<ref> {{cite web|url= http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=60440 |title=From Press Office: Senator John F. Kennedy, Immigration and Naturalization Laws, Hyannis Inn Motel, Hyannis, MA |accessdate=2007-09-20 |date=1960-08-06 |publisher=americanpresidency.org}}</ref>
====Space program====
[[Image:JFK inspects Mercury capsule, 23 February 1962.jpg|thumb|right|President Kennedy looks at the spacecraft [[Mercury Atlas 6|Friendship 7]], which made three earth orbits piloted by astronaut [[John Glenn]], [[February 23]], [[1962]], [[Cape Canaveral, Florida]]]]
Kennedy was eager for the United States to lead the way in the [[space race]]. [[Sergei Khrushchev]] says Kennedy approached his father, Nikita, twice about a "joint venture" in space exploration—in June 1961 and autumn 1963. On the first occasion, the Soviet Union was far ahead of America in terms of space technology. Kennedy first made the goal for landing a man on the [[Moon]] in speaking to a Joint Session of Congress on [[May 25]], [[1961]], saying <blockquote>"First, I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him back safely to the earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish."<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Speeches/JFK/Urgent+National+Needs+Page+4.htm |title=Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs Page 4 |accessdate=2007-09-20 |last=Kennedy |first=John F. |date=1961-05-25 |publisher=[[John F. Kennedy Library]]}}</ref> </blockquote> Kennedy later made a speech at [[Rice University]] on September 12, 1962, in which he said <blockquote> "No nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay behind in this race for space." </blockquote> and <blockquote>"We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard."<ref> {{cite web|url=http://webcast.rice.edu/speeches/19620912kennedy.html |title=President John F. Kennedy |accessdate=2007-09-20 |last=Kennedy |first=John F. |date=1962-09-12 |publisher=[[Rice University]]}}</ref> </blockquote> On the second approach to Khrushchev, the Russian was persuaded that cost-sharing was beneficial and American space technology was forging ahead. The U.S. had launched a [[geostationary]] satellite and Kennedy had asked Congress to approve more than $25 billion for the [[Apollo Project]].
Khrushchev agreed to a joint venture in late 1963, but Kennedy died before the agreement could be formalized. On [[July 20]], [[1969]], almost six years after JFK's death, Project Apollo's goal was finally realized when men landed on the Moon.
===Cabinet===
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="2" style="float: left; margin:1em 1em 1em 0; border:1px solid #000000;font-size:85%;" align="left"
!bgcolor="#dcdcdc" colspan="3"|The Kennedy Cabinet
|-
|align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[President of the United States|President]]||align="left" |'''John F. Kennedy'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align="left"|'''[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of State|State]]||align="left"|'''[[Dean Rusk]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury]]||align="left"|'''[[C. Douglas Dillon]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense]]||align="left"|'''[[Robert S. McNamara]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[Attorney General of the United States|Justice]]||align="left"|'''[[Robert F. Kennedy]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align="left"|'''[[J. Edward Day]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''[[John A. Gronouski]]'''||align="left"|1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior]]||align="left"|'''[[Stewart L. Udall]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Agriculture]]||align="left"|'''[[Orville L. Freeman]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Commerce]]||align="left"|'''[[Luther H. Hodges]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Labor]]||align="left"|'''[[Arthur J. Goldberg]]'''||align="left"|1961–1962
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''[[W. Willard Wirtz]]'''||align="left"|1962–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare|HEW]]||align="left"|'''[[Abraham A. Ribicoff]]'''||align="left"|1961–1962
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''[[Anthony J. Celebrezze]]'''||align="left"|1962–1963
|}
<br clear="all">
===Supreme Court appointments===
Kennedy appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:
*'''[[Byron Raymond White]]''' — 1962
*'''[[Arthur Joseph Goldberg]]''' — 1962
==Image, social life and family==
{{see|Kennedy political family}}
[[Image:JFK and family in Hyannis Port, 04 August 1962.jpg|thumb|right|John F. Kennedy with wife Jacqueline and children, 1962]]
Kennedy and his wife "Jackie" were very young in comparison to earlier presidents and first ladies, and were both extraordinarily popular in ways more common to [[pop singer]]s and [[movie star]]s than politicians, influencing fashion trends and becoming the subjects of numerous photo spreads in popular magazines. Jacqueline bought new [[art]] and [[furniture]], and eventually restored all the rooms in the White House.
Outside the White House lawn the Kennedys established a preschool, swimming pool and tree house. Jacqueline allowed very few photographs of the children to be taken of them but when she was gone, the President would allow the White House photographer Cecil Stoughton to take pictures of the children. The resulting photos are probably the most famous of the children, and especially of John Jr., after he was photographed playing underneath the President’s desk.
The president was closely tied to popular culture. Songs such as "Twisting at the White House" and "[[Camelot (musical)|Camelot]]" (the popular [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] play) were part of the JFK culture. [[Vaughn Meader|Vaughn Meader's]] "First Family" comedy album – an album parodying the President, First Lady, their family and administration – sold about 4 million copies. On [[May 19]], [[1962]], [[Marilyn Monroe]] [[Happy Birthday, Mr. President|sang for the president]] at a large birthday party in [[Madison Square Garden]]. The Kennedys also had ties to more serious culture; artists such as Pablo Casals were invited to the White House (Casals performed on Nov. 13, 1961).
Behind the glamorous facade, the Kennedys also suffered many personal tragedies. Jacqueline suffered a miscarriage in 1955 and gave birth to a stillborn daughter, [[Arabella Kennedy]], in 1956. The death of their newborn son, [[Patrick Bouvier Kennedy]], in August 1963, was a great loss. Since Kennedy's death, allegations have been made that Kennedy carried on numerous extramarital dalliances during his presidency with women such as [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]] actress [[Marilyn Monroe]] and [[socialite]] [[Mary Pinchot Meyer]].<ref>{{cite news | first=PATRICIA | last=O'BRIEN | coauthors= | title=When History Had Secrets | date=[[1998-12-20]] | publisher=[[New york times]] | url =http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9802E3DB113AF933A15751C1A96E958260 | work = | pages = | accessdate = 2007-09-20 | language =}}</ref>
The [[charisma]] of Kennedy and his family led to the figurative designation of "Camelot" for his administration, credited by his widow to his affection for the contemporary Broadway [[musical theatre|musical]] of the same name. She gave an interview to [[Theodore White]], where she mentioned the musical ''Camelot'',<ref>[http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Archives+and+Manuscripts/fa_white_theodore.htm The Personal Papers of Theodore H. White (1915–1986): Series 11. Camelot Documents], ''John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum''</ref> and White later said that he had "found the headline".
He holds a record acknowledged by the ''[[Guinness Book of World Records]]'' as the world's fastest speaker in public life, with a speed of 327 words in one minute in a speech given in December 1961.<ref>"In public life the highest speed recorded is a 327 words per min burst in a speech made in December 1961 by John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1917–63), then President of the United States." – ''The Guinness Book of Records 1988'', UK edition, p.18, ISBN 0-85112-868-8.</ref>
In October 1951, during his third term as [[Massachusetts's 11th congressional district|Massachusetts 11th district]] [[United States House of Representatives|congressman]], the then 34-year-old Kennedy embarked on a seven-week Asian trip to [[Israel]], [[India]], [[Vietnam]] and [[Japan]] with his then 25-year-old brother [[Robert F. Kennedy|Robert]] (who had just graduated from [[law school]] four months earlier) and his then 27-year-old sister [[Patricia Kennedy Lawford|Patricia]]. Because of their eight-year separation in age, the two brothers had previously seen little of each other. This {{convert|25000|mi|km|-3|sing=on}} trip was the first extended time they had spent together and resulted in their becoming best friends in addition to being brothers. Robert was [[campaign manager]] for Kennedy's successful 1952 Senate campaign and successful 1960 Presidential campaign. The two brothers worked closely together from 1957 to 1959 on the Senate Select Committee on Improper Activities in the Labor and Management Field ([[Senate Rackets Committee]]) when Robert was its chief counsel. During Kennedy's presidency, Robert served in his [[United States Cabinet|Cabinet]] as [[United States Attorney General|Attorney General]] and was his closest advisor.
Kennedy came in third (behind Martin Luther King, Jr. and [[Mother Teresa]]) in a [[Gallup Poll|Gallup]] [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|list of the most admired people of the twentieth century]].<ref>{{cite book | title = The Gallup Poll 1999 | publisher = Scholarly Resources Inc. | date= 1999 | location = Wilmington, DE | pages = 248–249}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Greatest of the Century | date= 1999-12-20 and 1999-12-21 | publisher = Gallup/CNN/USA Today Poll | url = http://www.pollingreport.com/20th.htm | accessdate = 2007-01-05}}</ref>
In 1946, Kennedy dated actress [[Gene Tierney]], who was separated from her then-husband fashion designer [[Oleg Cassini]]. In her book ''Self-portrait'', Ms. Tierney recalled that over an informal brunch, "Jack" told her that even after she divorced Cassini, he couldn't marry her. If he was to be the first elected Catholic President, he could never marry a divorced woman. Moreover, she was also a Protestant.
Seymour Hersh's ''The Dark Side of Camelot'' (1998) presents a critical analysis of the Kennedy administration, stating that Kennedy "was probably one of the unhealthiest men ever to sit in the Oval Office."
==Assassination==
{{main|John F. Kennedy assassination}}
[[Image:JFKmotorcade.jpg|thumb|left|JFK, Jackie, and the Connallys in the Presidential limousine before the assassination]]
President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, at 12:30 p.m. [[Central Time Zone (North America)|Central Standard Time]] on [[November 22]], [[1963]], while on a political trip to Texas. He was shot twice in the neck and head, and was pronounced dead at 1:00 p.m. [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] was arrested at a [[movie theater]] at about 1:50 p.m. He denied shooting anyone, claiming he was a [[wikt:patsy|patsy]], and was killed by [[Jack Ruby]] on [[November 24]], before he could be [[indictment|indicted]] or [[jury|tried]].
President Johnson created the [[Warren Commission]]—chaired by Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]]—to investigate the assassination. It concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, but this remains disputed by some scholars and eyewitnesses. [[Gallup Poll]]s taken since the mid-1960s have consistently shown that approximately 80% of the American people did not believe the Commission's findings.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} Conspiracy theories about the assassination (see [[Grassy knoll]]) and supposed cover-up have been put forward and have become commonplace in popular culture.
===Burial===
[[Image:JFK grave.jpg|thumb|right|Kennedy's grave at Arlington National Cemetery]]
On [[March 14]], [[1967]], Kennedy's body was moved to a permanent burial place and memorial at [[Arlington National Cemetery]], a right he earned by serving as an officer in the [[United States Navy]]. Kennedy is buried with his wife and their deceased minor children, and his brother, the late Senator [[Robert Kennedy]] is also buried nearby. His grave is lit with an "[[John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame|Eternal Flame]]," a last minute request of Jackie Kennedy that was powered by propane during the funeral service but has since been attached by several hundred feet of underground pipe to a natural gas main. In the film ''[[The Fog of War]]'', then Secretary of Defense [[Robert McNamara]] claims that he picked the location in the cemetery — a location which Jackie agreed was suitable. Kennedy and [[William Howard Taft]] are the only two U.S. Presidents buried at Arlington.
==Legacy==
[[Image:Kennedy funeral procession leaves White House, 25 November 1963.jpg|thumb|left|Kennedy's casket departs the White House]]
[[Television]] became the primary source by which people were kept informed of events surrounding John F. Kennedy's assassination. Newspapers were kept as souvenirs rather than sources of updated information. All three major U.S. television networks suspended their regular schedules and switched to all-news coverage from 22 November through [[25 November]] [[1963]]. [[State funeral of John F. Kennedy|Kennedy's state funeral procession]] and the murder of Lee Harvey Oswald were all broadcast live in America and in other places around the world. The [[state funeral]] was the first of three in a span of 12 months: The other two were for [[Douglas MacArthur|General Douglas MacArthur]] and [[Herbert Hoover]].
The assassination had an effect on many people, not only in the U.S. but also among the world population. Many vividly remember where they were when first learning of the news that Kennedy was assassinated, as with the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor]] on [[December 7]], [[1941]] before it and the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon on September 11, 2001]] after it. U.N. Ambassador [[Adlai Stevenson]] said of the assassination, "all of us… will bear the grief of his death until the day of ours."
Ultimately, the death of President Kennedy and the ensuing confusion surrounding the facts of his assassination are of political and historical importance insofar as they marked a decline in the faith of the American people in the political establishment — a point made by commentators from [[Gore Vidal]] to [[Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.]]
Kennedy's continuation of Presidents [[Harry S. Truman]]'s and [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]'s policies of giving economic and military aid to the [[Vietnam War]] preceded President Johnson's escalation of the conflict. This contributed to a decade of national difficulties and disappointment on the political landscape.
[[Image:John F Kennedy Official Portrait.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Official Presidential portrait]]
Many of Kennedy's speeches (especially his inaugural address) are considered iconic; and despite his relatively short term in office and lack of major legislative changes during his term, Americans regularly vote him as one of the best presidents, in the same league as [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[George Washington]] and [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. Some excerpts of Kennedy's inaugural address are engraved on a plaque at his grave at Arlington.
He was posthumously awarded the [[Pacem in Terris Award]]. It was named after a 1963 [[encyclical]] letter by [[Pope]] [[John XXIII]] that calls upon all people of goodwill to secure peace among all nations. [[Pacem in Terris]] is [[Latin]] for 'Peace on Earth.'
President Kennedy is the only president to have predeceased both his mother and father. He is also the only president to have predeceased his grandparent. His grandmother, [[Mary Josephine Hannon Fitzgerald]], died in 1964, just 8.5 months after his assassination.
===Children===
John F. Kennedy had 2 children that survived infancy. [[Caroline Kennedy|Caroline]] was born in 1957 and [[John F. Kennedy, Jr.|John Jr.]] was born in 1960, just a few weeks after his father was elected. John died in 1999 when the small plane he was piloting crashed en route to [[Martha's Vineyard]], killing him, his wife and his sister-in-law.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/jfkjr/stories/kennedy073199.htm Washingtonpost.com: Kennedy Plane Found to Be Fully Functional<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Caroline is currently the only surviving member of JFK's immediate family. His two other children were Arabella Kennedy ([[August 23]], [[1956]] - [[August 23]], [[1956]]), a [[stillborn]], and [[Patrick Bouvier Kennedy]] ([[August 7]], [[1963]] - [[August 9]], [[1963]]).
In February 2008, media reports surfaced about an [[Illegitimacy|illegitimate]] son of JFK found living in [[Vancouver]], [[Canada]], allegedly the result of an affair he had had with a Texas woman.<ref>[http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/story.html?id=383ad45a-72c5-401d-81ea-1a80111f260b&k=33944 JFK's 'love child' alleged to be living in Vancouver<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> [[Jack Worthington]], who recently revealed his identity to the [[The Globe and Mail]], is requesting a [[DNA test]] with one of the relatives to determine whether or not Kennedy was his biological father. He claims to have been conceived about one month after Kennedy's inauguration as President, in February 1961, after his mother was introduced to the President by Vice-President Johnson[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20080213.wjack13/BNStory/National/home?cid=al_gam_mostview]. After these claims became public, Worthington's immediate family issued a press release denying that he was the son of the fomer president, although Worthington still stuck by his story. Because of a lack of corroborative evidence, Vanity Fair cancelled a planned article on this story [http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/LAC.20080301.WORTHINGTON01/TPStory/?query=jack+worthington.].
===Memorials===
[[Image:KennedyCtr.jpg|thumb|John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.]]
*New York International Airport (formerly known as Idlewild Airport) was renamed [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]] on [[December 24]], [[1963]]. Today, the airport is widely referred to as "JFK."
*The [[Kennedy Expressway|John F. Kennedy Expressway]], a major expressway in [[Chicago]], was renamed for Kennedy by unanimous vote of Chicago City Council a few days after the president's assassination.
*[[John F. Kennedy Boulevard (Tampa, Florida)|Kennedy Blvd]] ([[State Road 60 (Florida)|State Road 60]]) in [[Tampa, Florida]] was renamed for Kennedy in 1964 by unanimous vote of the Tampa City Council. Kennedy visited Tampa on [[November 18]], [[1963]] only four days before his assassination. His motorcade drove five miles (8 km) down Grand Central Avenue to the heart of the business district.
*On [[November 26]], [[1963]], the [[Interstate 65]] bridge, spanning the [[Ohio River]] between [[Louisville, Kentucky]] and [[Jeffersonville, Indiana]], was named the [[John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge]].
*The North Padre Island Causeway, connecting [[Padre Island]] to the [[Texas]] mainland, was renamed the John F. Kennedy Causeway,
*[[NASA]]'s Launch Operations Center at [[Cape Canaveral]] was renamed the [[John F. Kennedy Space Center]]. Cape Canaveral itself was likewise renamed Cape Kennedy, but a referendum passed by Florida voters in 1973 reverted it to its original name.
*A Kennedy memorial was established in [[Runnymede]], [[England]], where the [[Magna Carta]] was sealed.
*A stretch of [[Interstate 95 in Maryland|Interstate 95]] in [[Maryland]], running from the [[Baltimore Beltway]] to the State Line, where it becomes the [[Delaware Turnpike]], had been dedicated by President Kennedy on [[November 14]], [[1963]], eight days before his assassination. It was soon renamed the [[John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway]].
*The U.S. Navy [[aircraft carrier]] ''[[USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)|USS John F. Kennedy]]'' was named on [[April 30]], [[1964]], and served until [[March 23]], [[2007]].
[[Image:2005 Half Dollar Obv Unc P.png|thumb|right|Kennedy has appeared on the U.S. half-dollar coin since 1964]]
[[Image:President Kennedy (bust) on Président-Kennedy Avenue, Montreal, 2005-10-21.JPG|thumb|Bust of JFK, with President Kennedy pavilion behind, on President Kennedy Ave. in Montreal]]
*The John F. Kennedy Presidential Library opened in 1979 as Kennedy's official [[presidential library]].
*[[John F. Kennedy University]] opened in [[Pleasant Hill, California]], in 1964 as a school for adult education.
*The [[John F. Kennedy National Historic Site]] preserves his home in Brookline.
*At Harvard University:
**The [[Harvard Institute of Politics]] serves as a living memorial which promotes public service in his name.
**The School of Government is known as the [[John F. Kennedy School of Government]].
*The [[John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts]] opened in 1971 in [[Washington, D.C.]] as a living memorial to him.
*Hundreds of schools across the U.S. were named in Kennedy's honor. The first school in the [[United States]] named after had been the [[Kennedy Middle School (Cupertino, California)|Kennedy Middle School]], in [[Cupertino, California]], while he was alive. In the week after Kennedy's death, the first schools renamed for him were the Kennedy Elementary School in [[Butte, Montana]] and the John F. Kennedy Middle School on Long Island in [[Bethpage, New York]].<ref> "Kennedy Memorials Surge Continuing Across World," ''Charleston (W.V.) Daily Mail'', [[November 29]], [[1963]] </ref>
*Philadelphia Municipal Stadium was renamed [[John F. Kennedy Stadium]] in 1964. It was razed in 1992 and is now the current site of the [[Wachovia Center]].
*Kennedy was posthumously awarded the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] in 1963.
*Since 1964, Kennedy's portrait has appeared on the [[United States half dollar coin]], replacing [[Benjamin Franklin]].
*[[Yad Kennedy]], a memorial to the U.S. president, was established on a crest in the Jerusalem Forest, on the southwest outskirts of [[Jerusalem]] near [[Aminadav]].
*One of the [[Solomon Islands]] is named [[Kennedy Island]].
*The city of [[Evansville, Indiana]] observed John F. Kennedy Day on [[November 22]], [[2003]] to mark the 40th anniversary of his death.
*One of the five residential towers at the [[University of Massachusetts Amherst]] is named Kennedy Tower in his honor.
*In February 2007, Kennedy's name, along with his wife's, was included on a list taken aboard the Japanese ''[[SELENE|Kaguya]]'' spacecraft to the [[Moon]], as part of [[Planetary Society|The Planetary Society]]'s "Wish Upon the Moon" campaign.<ref>{{cite press release | title =Send a New Year's Message to the Moon on Japan's SELENE Mission: Buzz Aldrin, Ray Bradbury and More Have Wished Upon the Moon | publisher = The Planetary Society | date= 2007-01-11 | url =http://www.planetary.org/about/press/releases/2007/0111_Send_a_New_Years_Message_to_the_Moon.html | format = | language = | accessdate =2007-07-14 | quote = }}</ref>
*The U.S. Army's [[John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School]] is named after the late president because of his support for the Army Rangers and [[United States Army Special Forces|Green Berets]].
*The park in Eyre Square, Galway City, Ireland is called John F. Kennedy Park, after his visit in 1963.
*One suggestion that was rejected was that the State of [[West Virginia]] be renamed in Kennedy's honor.<ref> "Plan to Rename West Virginia for JFK is Opposed", ''The Cumberland (Md.) News'', [[December 7]], [[1963]], p6 </ref> Emile J. Hodel, editor of the ''Post-Herald'' of [[Beckley, West Virginia]], wrote an editorial asking, "Why not change the name of West Virginia to Kennedy? Or perhaps Kennediana? What greater respect could the man receive than the renaming of the state he said he held most dear, after his home state of Massachusetts, in his honor?"<ref> ''Beckley Post-Herald'', [[November 29]], [[1963]], p6 </ref>
*A popular figure in predominantly Catholic Quebec, Kennedy was honored with a street in [[Montreal]], called President Kennedy Avenue. A bust of JFK and a building on science campus of the French-language university ''[[Université du Québec à Montréal]]'' named the President Kennedy pavilion are located at the street's western end.
==See also==
{{portal|United States Navy|United States Department of the Navy Seal.svg}}
{{wikiquote|John F. Kennedy}}
<div class="references" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
*[[History of the United States (1945–1964)]]
*[[Jesuit Ivy]]
*[[Peace Corps]]
*[[Kennedy Doctrine]]
*[[Operation Northwoods]]
*[[Zapruder film]], photographer of the primary film of assassination
*[[Orville Nix]], photographer of the second film of assassination
*[[Robert F. Kennedy assassination]]
*[[Kennedy Curse]]
*[[List of assassinated American politicians]]
*[[List of United States Presidents who died in office]]
*[[Coincidence theory]]
* "[[Senator, you are no Jack Kennedy]]" retort by Senator [[Lloyd Bentsen]], 1988 VP debate
*[[JFK Reloaded]], a [[video game]]
</div>
==References==
===Primary sources===
* Goldzwig, Steven R. and Dionisopoulos, George N., eds. ''In a Perilous Hour: The Public Address of John F. Kennedy'', text and analysis of key speeches (1995)
===Secondary sources===
* Brauer, Carl. ''John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction'' (1977)
* Burner, David. ''John F. Kennedy and a New Generation'' (1988)
*{{Cite book | last=Dallek | first=Robert | title=An Unfinished Life : John F. Kennedy, 1917 – 1963 | publisher=Brown, Little | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-316-17238-3}}
* Collier, Peter & Horowitz, David. ''The Kennedys'' (1984)
* Cottrell, John. ''Assassination! The World Stood Still'' (1964)
* Fay, Paul B., Jr. ''The Pleasure of His Company'' (1966)
* Freedman, Lawrence. ''Kennedy's Wars: Berlin, Cuba, Laos and Vietnam'' (2000)
* Fursenko, Aleksandr and Timothy Naftali. ''One Hell of a Gamble: Khrushchev, Castro and Kennedy, 1958–1964'' (1997)
* Giglio, James. ''The Presidency of John F. Kennedy'' (1991), standard scholarly overview of policies
* Harper, Paul, and Joann P. Krieg eds. ''John F. Kennedy: The Promise Revisited'' (1988), scholarly articles on presidency
* Harris, Seymour E. ''The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy'' (1962)
* Heath, Jim F. ''Decade of Disillusionment: The Kennedy–Johnson Years'' (1976), general survey of decade
* Hellmann, John. ''The Kennedy Obsession: The American Myth of JFK'' (1997), negative assessment
* Hersh, Seymour. ''The Dark Side of Camelot'' (1997), highly negative assessment
* House Select Committee on Assassinations. ''Final Assassinations Report'' (1979)
* Kunz, Diane B. ''The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s'' (1994)
* Manchester, William. ''Portrait of a President: John F. Kennedy in Profile'' (1967)
* Manchester, William. ''The Death of a President: November 20-November 25'' (1967)
* O'Brien, Michael. ''John F. Kennedy: A Biography'' (2005), the most detailed biography
* Parmet, Herbert. ''Jack: The Struggles of John F. Kennedy'' (1980)
* Parmet, Herbert. ''JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy'' (1983)
* Piper, Michael Collins. ''Final Judgment'' (2004: sixth edition). American Free Press
* Reeves, Richard. ''President Kennedy: Profile of Power'' (1993), balanced assessment of policies
* Reeves, Thomas. ''A Question of Character: A Life of John F. Kennedy'' (1991) hostile assessment of his character flaws
* Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. ''A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House'' (1965), by a close advisor
* Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. ''Robert Kennedy And His Times'' (2002)
*[[Jean Edward Smith|Smith, Jean Edward]]. ''Kennedy and Defense: The Formative Years''. Air University Review (March–April 1967) [http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1967/mar-apr/smith.html]
* Smith, Jean Edward. ''The Defense of Berlin'', Baltimore. Johns Hopkins Press (1963)
* Smith, Jean Edward. ''The Wall as Watershed'', Arlington, Virginia. Institute for Defense Analysis (1966)
* Smith, Jean Edward. "The Bay of Pigs: The Unanswered Questions". ''The Nation'', pp. 360–363 ([[April 13]], [[1964]])
* Sorensen, Theodore. ''Kennedy'' (1966), by a close advisor
* Walsh, Kenneth T. ''Air Force One: A History of the Presidents and Their Planes'' (2003)
===Citations===
{{reflist|2}}
==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Kennedy inauguration footage.ogg |
title = Kennedy inauguration footage |
description = Newsreel footage of the inauguration ceremony and speeches. (18.7 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}
President Kennedy comments on the possible prevention of the Cold War. [[Image:JFK ColdWarsOrigin.ogg|thumb|left|The sound file for President Kennedy]]
The sound file of the message to [[Turkey|Turkish]] President [[Cemal Gursel]] and The Turkish People on the Anniversary of the Death of [[Kemal Ataturk]], [[November 10]], [[1963]] [[Image:JFKennedy November1963.ogg|thumb|left|The sound file for Kennedy's speech]]
The Text of the message to Turkish President Cemal Gursel and The Turkish People on the Anniversary of the Death of Kemal Ataturk, [[November 10]], [[1963]] [[Image:JFKennedy1963 text.pdf|thumb|left|The text of Kennedy's speech]]
*[http://www.electricdisk.com/downloads/1963_11_22_ATC_JFK_Tape.mp3 The White House Situation Room reports on the assassination to an airplane with several Cabinet members as it flies to Hawaii, Nov 22,1963] (MP3 format 7.5 MB 33-Min.){{-}}
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|John F. Kennedy}}
*{{imdb name|0448123}}
*{{findagrave|574|John F. Kennedy}}
*[http://media.myfoxdfw.com/JFKvideo Historical TV Footage from Dallas TV Station KDFW] Exclusive television coverage -- most from the KRLD -TV/KDFW Collection at the Sixth Floor Museum at Dealey Plaza
*[http://www.americanbooktour.com/book_reclaiming_history_part_2.asp Video of Vincent Bugliosi discussing JFK assassination]
*[http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/index.php/academic/americanpresident/kennedy Extensive essay on John F. Kennedy] (with shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs)
*[http://millercenter.virginia.edu/scripps/digitalarchive/speechDetail/27 Full audio of Kennedy speeches via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa)]
*[http://millercenter.virginia.edu/scripps/digitalarchive/presidentialrecordings/kennedy/index Kennedy's Secret White House Recordings via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa)]
*[http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/jfkinaugural.htm Video, Audio, Text of John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address]
*[http://youtube.com/watch?v=zkzjodKAQhA Kennedy discusses Cuban Missile Crisis with former President Eisenhower]
*[http://www.jfklibrary.org/ John F. Kennedy Library]
*[http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/jk35.html The White House Biography]
*[http://search.yale.edu:8765/query.html?col=ycsg&col=opa&col=yaleuniv&col=dynamic&qt=John+F.+Kennedy&charset=iso-8859-1&qp=%2Burl%3Awww.yale.edu%2Flawweb%2Favalon JFK at the Avalon Project]
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/ Kennedy Administration Official Documentary Historical Record of Major Foreign Policy Decisions] from [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/ The Foreign Relations of the United States] Series, [[United States Department of State]], Office of the Historian, [[United States Government Printing Office]], Washington, D.C.
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/6378463.stm New video footage released of JFK's last moments]
*{{worldcat id|id=lccn-n79-55297}}
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{{Redirect4|John Kennedy|JFK}}
{{Infobox_President
| name = John Fitzgerald Kennedy
| image = John_F_Kennedy1963.jpg
| order = 35th
| office = President of the United States
| term_start = [[January 20]], [[1961]]
| term_end = [[November 22]], [[1963]]
| vicepresident = [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]
| predecessor = [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]
| successor = [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]
| jr/sr2 = United States Senator
| state2 = [[Massachusetts]]
| term_start2 = [[January 3]], [[1953]]
| term_end2 = [[December 22]], [[1960]]
| preceded2 = [[Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.]]
| succeeded2 = [[Benjamin A. Smith II|Benjamin A. Smith]]
| state3 = Massachusetts
| district3 = [[Massachusetts's 11th congressional district|11th]]
| term_start3 = [[January 3]], [[1947]]
| term_end3 = [[January 3]], [[1953]]
| preceded3 = [[James Michael Curley]]
| succeeded3 = [[Thomas P. O'Neill, Jr.]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|1917|5|29|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Brookline, Massachusetts]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1963|11|22|1917|5|29}}
| death_place = [[Dallas, Texas]]
| spouse = [[Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis|Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy]]
| alma_mater = [[Harvard College]]
| party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| religion = [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]
| signature = John F. Kennedy signature.png
}}
'''John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy ''' ([[May 29]], [[1917]] – [[November 22]], [[1963]]), often referred to by his initials '''JFK''', was the [[List of Presidents of the United States|thirty-fifth]] [[President of the United States]], serving from 1961 until his [[John F. Kennedy assassination|assassination]] in 1963.
After Kennedy's military service as commander of the [[Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109|USS ''PT-109'']] during [[World War II]] in the [[South West Pacific Area|South Pacific]], his aspirations turned [[politics|political]], with the encouragement and grooming of his father. Kennedy represented the state of [[Massachusetts]] in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]] from 1947 to 1953 as a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]], and in the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] from 1953 until 1961. Kennedy defeated then [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] and Republican candidate [[Richard Nixon]] in the [[United States presidential election, 1960|1960 U.S. presidential election]], one of the closest in American history. He is the youngest man and the only practicing [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] to be elected president.<ref>[[Theodore Roosevelt]] was 9 months younger when he first assumed the presidency on [[September 14]], [[1901]], but he was not elected to the presidency until 1904, when he was 46.</ref> He is also the only president to have won a [[Pulitzer Prize]].<ref>[http://www.pulitzer.org/resources/faqs.html Pulitzer.org FAQ]</ref> Events during his administration include the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]], the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]], the building of the [[Berlin Wall]], the [[Space Race]], the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968)|American Civil Rights Movement]] and early events of the [[Vietnam War]].
[[John F. Kennedy assassination|Kennedy was assassinated]] on [[November 22]], [[1963]], in [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]], [[Texas]]. [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] was charged with the crime, but was murdered two days later by [[Jack Ruby]] before he could be put on trial. The [[Warren Commission]] concluded that Oswald had acted alone in killing the president; however, the [[House Select Committee on Assassinations]] declared in 1979 that there was more likely a [[conspiracy (political)|conspiracy]] that included Oswald. The entire subject remains [[controversy|controversial]], with multiple theories about the assassination still being debated. The event proved to be an important moment in [[history of the United States|U.S. history]] because of its impact on the nation and the ensuing political repercussions. Today, Kennedy continues to rank highly in [[Historical rankings of United States Presidents|public opinion ratings]] of former U.S. presidents.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/presidents/35_kennedy/kennedy_legacy.html American Experience: John F. Kennedy], [[PBS]]. Retrieved on [[February 25]] [[2007]].</ref>
==Early life and education==
Kennedy was born at 83 Beals Street in [[Brookline, Massachusetts]] on Tuesday, [[May 29]], [[1917]], at 3:00 p.m.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nps.gov/jofi/faqs.htm |title= John Fitzgerald Kennedy National Historic site |accessdate=2008-02-08 |format= HHTML}}</ref>, the second son of [[Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr.]], and [[Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy|Rose Fitzgerald]]; Rose, in turn, was the eldest child of [[John F. Fitzgerald|John "Honey Fitz" Fitzgerald]], a prominent [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] political figure who was the city's mayor and a three-term member of [[United States Congress|Congress]]. Kennedy, who was to be the first U.S. president born in the twentieth century, lived in Brookline for his first ten years of life. He attended Brookline's public [[Edward Devotion School]] from kindergarten through the beginning of 3rd grade, then [[Noble and Greenough School|Noble and Greenough]] Lower School and its successor, the [[Dexter School]], a private school for boys, through 4th grade. In September 1927, Kennedy moved with his family to a rented 20-room mansion in [[Riverdale, Bronx]], [[New York City]], then two years later moved five miles (8 km) northeast to a 21-room mansion on a six-acre estate in [[Bronxville, New York]], purchased in May 1929. He was a member of Scout Troop 2 at Bronxville from 1929 to 1931 and was to be the first Scout to become President.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/John+F.+Kennedy+Miscellaneous+Information.htm |title=John F. Kennedy Miscellaneous Information |accessdate=2007-09-17 |work=JFK library}}</ref> Kennedy spent summers with his family at [[Kennedy Compound|their home]] in [[Hyannis Port, Massachusetts]], also purchased in 1929, and Christmas and Easter holidays with his family at their winter home in [[Palm Beach, Florida]], purchased in 1933. In his primary school years, he attended [[Riverdale Country School]], a private school for boys in Riverdale, for 5th through 7th grade.
For 8th grade in September 1930, the 13-year old Kennedy was sent fifty miles away to [[Canterbury School (Connecticut)|Canterbury School]], a lay Catholic boarding school for boys in [[New Milford, Connecticut]]. In late April 1931, he had [[appendicitis]] requiring an [[appendectomy]], after which he withdrew from Canterbury and recuperated at home. In September 1931, Kennedy was sent over sixty miles away to [[Choate Rosemary Hall|The Choate School]], an elite private [[university-preparatory school|university preparatory]] boarding school for boys in [[Wallingford, Connecticut]] for 9th through 12th grades, following his older brother, [[Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr.|Joe Jr.]], who was two years ahead of him. In January 1934 during his junior year at Choate, he became ill, lost a lot of weight, was hospitalized at [[Yale-New Haven Hospital]] until Easter, and spent most of June 1934 hospitalized at the [[Mayo Clinic]] in [[Rochester, Minnesota]] for evaluation of [[colitis]].
He graduated from Choate in June 1935. Kennedy's superlative in his yearbook was "Most likely to become President". In September 1935, he sailed on the [[SS Normandie|SS ''Normandie'']] on his first trip abroad with his parents and his sister [[Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington|Kathleen]] to [[London, England|London]] with the intent of studying for a year with Professor [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]] (LSE) as his older brother Joe had done, but after a brief hospitalization with [[jaundice]] after less than a week at LSE, he sailed back to America only three weeks after he had arrived. In October 1935, Kennedy enrolled late and spent six weeks at [[Princeton University]], but was then hospitalized for two months observation for possible [[leukemia]] at [[Brigham and Women's Hospital|Peter Bent Brigham Hospital]] in Boston in January and February 1936. He recuperated at the Kennedy winter home in Palm Beach in March and April, spent May and June working as a ranch hand on a 40,000 acre (160 km²) [[cattle ranch]] outside [[Benson, Arizona]], then July and August racing sailboats at the Kennedy summer home in Hyannis Port.
In September 1936 he enrolled as a freshman at [[Harvard College]], residing in [[Winthrop House]] during his sophomore through senior years, again following two years behind his older brother Joe. In early July 1937, Kennedy took his [[convertible]], sailed on the [[SS Washington|SS ''Washington'']] to France, and spent ten weeks driving with a friend through France, Italy, Germany, Holland and England. In late June 1938, Kennedy sailed with his father and his brother Joe on the SS ''Normandie'' to spend July working with his father, recently appointed U.S. Ambassador to the [[Court of St. James]] by President Roosevelt, at the [[Embassy of the United States in London|American embassy in London]], and August with his family at a villa near [[Cannes]]. From February through September 1939, Kennedy toured Europe, the [[Soviet Union]], the [[Balkans]] and the [[Middle East]] to gather background information for his Harvard senior honors thesis. He spent the last ten days of August in [[Czechoslovakia]] and [[Germany]] before returning to London on [[September 1]], [[1939]], the day [[Invasion of Poland (1939)|Germany invaded Poland]]. On [[September 3]], [[1939]], Kennedy and his family were in attendance at the [[Strangers Gallery]] of the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] to hear speeches in support of the [[United Kingdom]]'s declaration of war on Germany. Kennedy was sent as his father's representative to help with arrangements for American survivors of the [[SS Athenia|SS ''Athenia'']], before flying back to the U.S. on [[Pan American World Airways|Pan Am]]'s ''[[Boeing 314|Dixie Clipper]]'' from [[Foynes|Foynes, Ireland]] to [[Port Washington, New York]] on his first transatlantic flight at the end of September.
In 1940, Kennedy completed his thesis, "Appeasement in Munich," about British participation in the [[Munich Agreement]]. He initially intended his thesis to be private, but his father encouraged him to publish it as a book. He graduated ''[[Latin honors|cum laude]]'' from Harvard with a degree in [[International relations|international affairs]] in June 1940, and his thesis was published in July 1940 as a book entitled ''[[Why England Slept]]'',<ref>{{cite book | last = Kennedy | first = John F. | authorlink = John F. Kennedy | title = Why England Slept | publisher = Greenwood Press Reprint | date= 1981-10-16 | url = http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24144268 | isbn = 978-0313228742}}</ref> and became a [[bestseller]].<ref>{{cite web|title = Why England Slept|work = Museum Store|publisher = John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum|url = http://www.jfklibrary.org/store/detail.aspx?ProdID=67&Category=books|accessdate = 2006-09-19}}; [[Jean Edward Smith]], "Kennedy and Defense: The Formative Years", ''Air University Review'', (Mar-Apr, 1967) </ref>
From September to December 1940, Kennedy was enrolled and audited classes at the [[Stanford Graduate School of Business]]. In early 1941, he helped his father complete the writing of a memoir of his three years as an American ambassador. In May and June 1941, Kennedy traveled throughout [[South America]].
==Military service==
{{main|Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109}}
In the spring of 1941, Kennedy volunteered for the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]], but was rejected, mainly because of his troublesome back. Nevertheless, in September of that year, the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] accepted him, due to the influence of the director of the [[Office of Naval Intelligence]] (ONI), a former naval [[attaché]] to the [[Ambassador]], his father. As an [[ensign (rank)|ensign]], Kennedy served in the office which supplied bulletins and briefing information for the [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]. It was during this assignment that the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] occurred. He attended the Naval Reserve Officers Training School and Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Training Center before being assigned for duty in [[Panama]] and eventually the [[Pacific theater]]. He participated in various commands in the Pacific theater and earned the rank of [[lieutenant]], commanding a [[PT boat|patrol torpedo (PT) boat]].<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq60-2.htm |title=Lieutenant John F. Kennedy, USN |accessdate=2007-09-17 |date=2002-06-18 |work=Naval Historical Center}}</ref>
[[Image:Lt. John F. Kennedy aboard the PT-109.jpg|225px|thumb|left|Lt. Kennedy on his navy patrol boat, the ''PT-109'']]
On [[August 2]], [[1943]], Kennedy's boat, the ''PT-109'', was taking part in a nighttime patrol near [[New Georgia]] in the [[Solomon Islands]]. It was rammed by the [[Japanese destroyer Amagiri|Japanese destroyer ''Amagiri'']].<ref> Hove, Duane (2003) ''American Warriors: Five Presidents in the Pacific Theater of World War II Bard Street Press ISBN 1-57249-307-0 </ref><ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.americanwarriorsfivepresidents.com/ |title= Five Presidents in the Pacific Theater of World War II |accessdate=2007-09-17 |last=Hove |first=Duane T}}</ref> Kennedy was thrown across the deck, injuring his already-troubled back. Nonetheless, he swam, towing a wounded man, to an island and later to a second island where his crew was subsequently rescued. For these actions, Kennedy received the [[Navy and Marine Corps Medal]] under the following citation:
<blockquote>'' For extremely heroic conduct as Commanding Officer of Motor Torpedo Boat 109 following the collision and sinking of that vessel in the Pacific War Theater on August 1-2, 1943. Unmindful of personal danger, Lieutenant (then [[Lieutenant, Junior Grade]]) Kennedy unhesitatingly braved the difficulties and hazards of darkness to direct rescue operations, swimming many hours to secure aid and food after he had succeeded in getting his crew ashore. His outstanding courage, endurance and leadership contributed to the saving of several lives and were in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.''</blockquote>
Kennedy's other decorations in [[World War II]] included the [[Purple Heart]], [[Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal]] and the [[World War II Victory Medal]]. He was honorably discharged in early 1945, just a few months before [[Japan]] surrendered. The incident was popularized when he became president and would be the subject of several magazine articles, books, comic books, TV specials and a feature length movie, making the ''PT-109'' one of the most famous U.S. Navy ships of the war. Scale models and even [[G.I. Joe]] figures based on the incident were still being produced in the 2000s. The coconut which was used to scrawl a rescue message given to [[Biuki Gasa|Solomon Islander scouts]] who found him was kept on his presidential desk and is still at the [[John F. Kennedy Library]].
During his presidency, Kennedy privately admitted to friends that he didn't feel that he deserved the medals he had received, because the ''PT-109'' incident had been the result of a botched military operation that had cost the lives of two members of his crew. When later asked by a reporter how he became a war hero, Kennedy (known for a sense of humor) joked: "It was involuntary. They sank my boat."
In May 2002, a [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] expedition found what is believed to be the wreckage of the ''PT-109'' in the Solomon Islands. <ref>Ted Chamberlain ([[July 11]], [[2002]]) [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/07/0709_020710_kennedyPT109.html ''JFK's PT-109 Found, U.S. Navy Confirms''] ([[National Geographic News]]).</ref>
==Early political career==
After World War II, Kennedy had considered the option of becoming a journalist before deciding to run for political office. Prior to the war, he had not strongly considered becoming a politician as a career, because his family, especially his father, had already pinned its political hopes on his older brother. Joseph, however, was killed in World War II, giving John seniority. When in 1946 U.S. Representative [[James Michael Curley]] vacated his seat in an overwhelmingly Democratic district to become mayor of Boston, Kennedy ran for the seat, beating his Republican opponent by a large margin. He was a congressman for six years but had a mixed voting record, often diverging from President [[Harry S. Truman]] and the rest of the Democratic Party. In 1952, he defeated incumbent Republican [[Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.]] for the U.S. Senate.
Kennedy married [[Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis|Jacqueline Lee Bouvier]] on [[September 12]], [[1953]]. He underwent several spinal operations over the following two years, nearly dying (in all he received the Catholic Church's [[Anointing of the Sick|"last rites"]] four times during his life), and was often absent from the Senate. During his convalescence, he wrote ''[[Profiles in Courage]]'', a book describing eight instances in which U.S. Senators risked their careers by standing by their personal beliefs. The book was awarded the [[Pulitzer Prize]] for Biography in 1957.<ref name="Jean3"/>
In [[United States presidential election, 1956|the 1956 presidential election]], presidential nominee [[Adlai Stevenson]] left the choice of a Vice Presidential nominee to the [[1956 Democratic National Convention|Democratic convention]], and Kennedy finished second in that balloting to Senator [[Estes Kefauver]] of Tennessee. Despite this defeat, Kennedy received national exposure from that episode that would prove valuable in subsequent years. His father, Joseph Kennedy, Sr., pointed out that it was just as well that John did not get that nomination, as some people sought to blame anything they could on Catholics, even though it was privately known that any Democrat would have trouble running against Eisenhower in 1956.
John F. Kennedy voted for final passage of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1957]] after having earlier voted for the "Jury Trial Amendment", which effectively rendered the Act toothless because convictions for violations could not be obtained. Staunch [[segregationist]]s such as senators [[James Eastland]] and [[John McClellan]] and [[Mississippi]] Governor [[James Coleman]] were early supporters of Kennedy's presidential campaign.<ref>T. Reeves, ''A Question of Character'', p.140.</ref> In 1958, Kennedy was re-elected to a second term in the United States Senate, defeating his Republican opponent, Boston lawyer Vincent J. Celeste, by a wide margin.
Years later, it was revealed that in September 1947 when he was 30 years old and during his first term as a congressman, Kennedy had been diagnosed by Sir Daniel Davis at The [[London]] Clinic with [[Addison's disease]], a rare endocrine disorder. The nature of this and other medical problems were kept secret from the press and public throughout Kennedy's lifetime and Presidential tenure.<ref>Online NewsHour with Senior Correspondent [[Ray Suarez]] and physician Jeffrey Kelman, [http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/health/july-dec02/jfk_11-18.html Pres. Kennedy's Health Secrets], ''[[The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer]] transcript'', [[November 18]], [[2002]]</ref>
Sen. [[Joseph McCarthy]] was a friend of the Kennedy family: Joe Kennedy was a leading McCarthy supporter; [[Robert F. Kennedy]] worked for McCarthy's subcommittee, and McCarthy dated [[Patricia Kennedy Lawford|Patricia Kennedy]]. In 1954, when the Senate was poised to condemn McCarthy, John Kennedy drafted a speech calling for McCarthy's censure, but never delivered it. When on [[December 2]], [[1954]], the Senate rendered its highly publicized decision to censure McCarthy, Senator Kennedy was in the hospital. Though absent, Kennedy could have "paired" his vote against that of another senator, but chose not to; neither did he ever indicate then nor later how he would have voted. The episode seriously damaged Kennedy's support in the liberal community, especially with [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], as late as the 1960 election.<ref>O'Brien (2005) 274–79, 394–99. </ref>
==1960 presidential election==
{{main|United States presidential election, 1960}}
[[Image:Jfk-appleton.jpg|thumb|left|John and Jackie Kennedy campaigning in [[Appleton, Wisconsin]], March 1960]]
On [[January 2]], [[1960]], Kennedy officially declared his intent to run for President of the United States. In the Democratic [[primary election]], he faced challenges from Senator [[Hubert Humphrey]] of [[Minnesota]] and Senator [[Wayne Morse]] of [[Oregon]]. Kennedy defeated Humphrey in [[Wisconsin]] and [[West Virginia]] and Morse in [[Maryland]] and Oregon, although Morse's candidacy is often forgotten by historians. He also defeated token opposition (often write-in candidates) in [[New Hampshire]], [[Indiana]] and [[Nebraska]]. In West Virginia, Kennedy visited a [[coal mine]] and talked to mine workers to win their support; most people in that [[American conservatism|conservative]], mostly [[Protestant]] state were deeply suspicious of Kennedy's Catholicism. His victory in West Virginia cemented his credentials as a candidate with broad popular appeal. At the Democratic Convention, he gave the well-known "[[New Frontier]]," which represented the changes America and the rest of the world would be going through.
With Humphrey and Morse out of the race, Kennedy's main opponent at the convention in Los Angeles was Senator [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] of [[Texas]]. [[Adlai Stevenson]], the Democratic nominee in 1952 and 1956, was not officially running but had broad grassroots support inside and outside the convention hall. Senator [[Stuart Symington]] of Missouri was also a candidate, as were several [[favorite son]]s. On [[July 13]], [[1960]], the Democratic convention nominated Kennedy as its candidate for President. Kennedy asked Johnson to be his Vice Presidential candidate, despite opposition from many liberal delegates and Kennedy's own staff, including Robert Kennedy. He needed Johnson's strength in the [[Southern United States|South]] to win what was considered likely to be the closest election since [[United States presidential election, 1916|1916]]. Major issues included how to get the economy moving again, Kennedy's Catholicism, [[Cuba]], and whether the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] space and missile programs had surpassed those of the U.S. To address fears that his Catholicism would impact his decision-making, he famously told the Greater Houston Ministerial Association on [[September 12]], [[1960]], "I am not the Catholic candidate for President. I am the Democratic Party's candidate for President who also happens to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters — and the Church does not speak for me."<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/jfkhoustonministers.html |title=Address to the Greater Houston Ministerial Association |accessdate=2007-09-17 |last=Kennedy |first=John F. |date=2002-06-18 |work=American Rhetoric}}</ref> Kennedy also brought up the point of whether one-quarter of Americans were relegated to second-class citizenship just because they were Catholic.
In September and October, Kennedy debated Republican candidate and Vice President Richard Nixon in the first televised [[U.S. presidential election debates|U.S. presidential debates]] in U.S. history. During these programs, Nixon, nursing an injured leg and sporting "[[five o'clock shadow]]", looked tense and uncomfortable, while Kennedy appeared relaxed, leading the huge television audience to deem Kennedy the winner. Radio listeners, however, either thought Nixon had won or that the debates were a draw.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/K/htmlK/kennedy-nixon/kennedy-nixon.htm |title=THE KENNEDY-NIXON PRESIDENTIAL DEBATES, 1960 |accessdate=2007-09-18 |last=Tyner Allen |first=Erika |work=museum.tv}}</ref> Nixon did not wear make-up during the initial debate, unlike Kennedy. The debates are now considered a milestone in American political history--the point at which the medium of television began to play a dominant role in national politics.<ref name=Jean3> {{cite web|url=http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1967/mar-apr/smith.html |title=Kennedy and Defense The formative years |accessdate=2007-09-18 |last=Edward Smith |first=Dr. Jean |date=1967-03 |work=Air University Review}}</ref> After the first debate Kennedy's campaign gained momentum and he pulled slightly ahead of Nixon in most polls. On Tuesday, November 8, Kennedy defeated Nixon in one of the closest presidential elections of the twentieth century. In the national popular vote Kennedy led Nixon by just two-tenths of one percent (49.7% to 49.5%), while in the [[Electoral College]] he won 303 votes to Nixon's 219 (269 were needed to win). Another 14 electors from [[Mississippi]] and [[Alabama]] refused to support Kennedy because of his support for the [[civil rights movement]]; they voted for Senator [[Harry F. Byrd, Sr.]] of Virginia.
==Presidency (1961–1963)==
{{wikisource|John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address}}
John F. Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th [[President of the United States|President]] at noon on [[January 20]], [[1961]]. In [[Inaugural address of John F. Kennedy|his inaugural address]] he spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens, famously saying, "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." He also asked the nations of the world to join together to fight what he called the "common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself." In closing, he expanded on his desire for greater [[Internationalism (politics)|internationalism]]:
"Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you."<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Speeches/JFK/003POF03Inaugural01201961.htm |title=Inaugural Address of President John F. Kennedy |accessdate=2007-09-18 |date=1961-01-20 |work=JFK library}}</ref>
===Foreign policy===
====Cuba and the Bay of Pigs Invasion====
{{main|Bay of Pigs Invasion}}
Prior to Kennedy's election to the presidency, the Eisenhower Administration created a plan to overthrow the [[Fidel Castro]] regime in Cuba. Central to such a plan, which was structured and detailed by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) with minimal input from the [[United States Department of State]], was the arming of a counter-revolutionary insurgency composed of anti-Castro Cubans.<ref name = "Schlesinger-Kennedy">Schlesinger, Robert Kennedy and His Times</ref> U.S.-trained Cuban insurgents were to invade Cuba and instigate an uprising among the Cuban people in hopes of removing Castro from power. On [[April 17]], [[1961]], Kennedy ordered the previously planned invasion of Cuba to proceed. With support from the CIA, in what is known as the Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1,500 U.S.-trained Cuban exiles, called "Brigade 2506," returned to the island in the hope of deposing Castro. However, Kennedy ordered the invasion to take place without U.S. air support. By [[April 19]], [[1961]], the Cuban government had captured or killed the invading exiles, and Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release of the 1,189 survivors. The failure of the plan originated in a lack of dialog among the military leadership, a result of which was the complete lack of naval support in the face of organized artillery troops on the island who easily incapacitated the exile force as it landed on the beach.<ref name = "Schlesinger-Kennedy"/> After twenty months, Cuba released the captured exiles in exchange for $53 million worth of food and medicine. Furthermore, the incident made Castro wary of the U.S. and led him to believe that another invasion would occur.<ref> [[Jean Edward Smith]], "Bay of Pigs: The Unanswered Questions", ''The Nation'', [[April 13]], [[1964]]</ref>
====Cuban Missile Crisis====
{{main|Cuban Missile Crisis}}
[[Image:EXCOMM meeting, Cuban Missile Crisis, 29 October 1962.jpg|thumb|left|Kennedy's Cabinet meets during the Cuban Missile Crisis, [[October 29]], [[1962]]]]
[[Image:Khrushchev Kennedy 1962 Wien.jpg|thumb|right|Greeting [[Nikita Khrushchev]] in Vienna in 1961]]
[[Image:John Kennedy, Nikita Khrushchev 1961.jpg|thumb|right|Meeting [[Nikita Khrushchev]] in 1961]]
The Cuban Missile Crisis began on [[October 14]], [[1962]], when American [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] [[spy plane]]s took photographs of a Soviet intermediate-range ballistic missile site under construction in Cuba. The photos were shown to Kennedy on [[October 16]], [[1962]]. America would soon be posed with a serious nuclear threat. Kennedy faced a [[dilemma]]: if the U.S. attacked the sites, it might lead to [[Nuclear warfare|nuclear war]] with the [[U.S.S.R.]], but if the U.S. did nothing, it would endure the threat of nuclear weapons being launched from close range. Because the weapons were in such proximity, the U.S. might have been unable to retaliate if they were launched pre-emptively. Another consideration was that the U.S. would appear to the world as weak in its own [[Western Hemisphere|hemisphere]].
Many military officials and cabinet members pressed for an air assault on the missile sites, but Kennedy ordered a naval quarantine in which the U.S. Navy inspected all ships arriving in Cuba. He began negotiations with the Soviets and ordered the Soviets to remove all defensive material that was being built on Cuba. Without doing so, the Soviet and Cuban peoples would face naval quarantine. A week later, he and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev reached an agreement. Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles subject to U.N. inspections if the U.S. publicly promised never to invade Cuba and quietly removed US missiles stationed in Turkey. Following this crisis, which brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any point before or since, Kennedy was more cautious in confronting the Soviet Union.
====Latin America and communism====
{{main|Kennedy and Latin America}}
Arguing that "those who make peaceful revolution impossible, will make violent revolution inevitable,"<ref>JFK's "Address on the First Anniversary of the Alliance for Progress," White House reception for diplomatic corps of the Latin American republics, March 13, 1962. ''Public Papers of the Presidents'' - John F. Kennedy (1962), p. 223.</ref> Kennedy sought to contain [[communism]] in [[Latin America]] by establishing the [[Alliance for Progress]], which sent [[foreign aid]] to troubled countries in the region and sought greater [[human rights]] standards in the region. He worked closely with [[Puerto Rican]] [[Governor of Puerto Rico|Governor]] [[Luis Muñoz Marín]] for the development of the Alliance of Progress, as well as developments in the autonomy of the Commonwealth of [[Puerto Rico]].
====Peace Corps====
As one of his first presidential acts, Kennedy created the [[Peace Corps]]. Through this program, Americans volunteered to help underdeveloped nations in areas such as [[education]], [[farming]], [[health care]] and [[construction]].
====Vietnam====
In South East Asia, Kennedy followed Eisenhower's lead by using limited military action to fight the Communist forces ostensibly led by [[Ho Chi Minh]]. Proclaiming a fight against the spread of Communism, Kennedy enacted policies providing political, economic, and military support for the unstable French-installed [[South Vietnam]]ese government, which included sending 16,000 military advisors and U.S. Special Forces to the area. Kennedy also agreed to the use of [[free-fire zone]]s, [[napalm]], [[defoliant]]s and [[jet plane]]s. U.S. involvement in the area continually escalated until regular U.S. forces were directly fighting the [[Vietnam War]] in the next administration. The Kennedy Administration increased military support, but the South Vietnamese military was unable to make headway against the pro-independence [[Viet-Minh]] and [[Viet Cong]] forces. By July 1963, Kennedy faced a crisis in Vietnam. The Administration's response was to assist in the [[coup d'état]] of the Catholic President of South Vietnam, [[Ngo Dinh Diem]].<ref>LeFeber, "America, Russia and the Cold War", p.233)</ref> In 1963, South Vietnamese generals overthrew the Diem government, arresting Diem and later killing him (though the exact circumstances of his death remain unclear)<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB101/vn28.pdf |title=Press Version of How Diem and Nhu Died |accessdate=2007-09-18 |date=1963-11-12 |format=PDF |work=Central Intelligence Agency Office of current intelligence |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> Kennedy sanctioned Diem's overthrow. One reason for the support was a fear that Diem might negotiate a neutralist coalition government which included Communists, as had occurred in [[Laos]] in 1962. [[Dean Rusk]], Secretary of State, remarked "This kind of neutralism…is tantamount to surrender."
It remains a point of controversy among historians whether or not Vietnam would have escalated to the point it did had Kennedy served out his full term and possibly been re-elected in 1964.<ref> Joseph Ellis, "Making Vietnam History ", ''Reviews in American History'' 28.4 (2000) 625–629 </ref> Fueling this speculation are statements made by Kennedy's and Johnson's Secretary of Defense [[Robert McNamara]] that Kennedy was strongly considering pulling out of Vietnam after the 1964 election. In the film "[[The Fog of War]]", not only does McNamara say this, but a tape recording of Lyndon Johnson confirms that Kennedy was planning to withdraw from Vietnam, a position Johnson states he disapproved of.<ref> The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara</ref> Additional evidence is Kennedy's National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) #263 on [[October 11]], [[1963]] that gave the order for withdrawal of 1,000 military personnel by the end of 1963. Nevertheless, given the stated reason for the overthrow of the Diem government, such action would have been a dramatic policy reversal, but Kennedy was generally moving in a less hawkish direction in the Cold War since his acclaimed speech about World Peace at American University the previous [[June 10]], [[1963]].
After Kennedy's assassination, new President Lyndon B. Johnson immediately reversed his predecessor's order to withdraw 1,000 military personnel by the end of 1963 with his own NSAM #273 on [[November 26]], [[1963]].
====West Berlin speech====
[[Image:John F. Kennedy meeting with Willy Brandt, March 13, 1961.jpg|thumb|left|Kennedy meeting with [[West Berlin]] governing mayor [[Willy Brandt]], March 1961]]{{wikisource|Ich bin ein Berliner|JFK's Ich bin ein Berliner speech}}
Under simultaneous and opposing pressures from the Allies and the Soviets, Germany was divided. The [[Berlin Wall]] separated West and East Berlin, the latter being under the control of the Soviets. On [[June 26]], [[1963]], Kennedy visited [[West Berlin]] and gave a public speech criticizing communism. Kennedy used the construction of the [[Berlin Wall]] as an example of the failures of communism: "[[Freedom (political)|Freedom]] has many difficulties and [[democracy]] is not perfect, but we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in." The speech is known for its famous phrase ''"[[Ich bin ein Berliner]]"''. Nearly five-sixths of the population was on the street when Kennedy said the famous phrase. He remarked to aides afterwards: "We'll never have another day like this one."<ref> [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''The Defense of Berlin'', Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963; [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''The Wall as Watershed'', Arlington, Virginia: Institute for Defense Analysis, 1966. </ref>
====Nuclear Test Ban Treaty====
Troubled by the long-term dangers of [[radioactive contamination]] and [[nuclear proliferation|nuclear weapons proliferation]], Kennedy pushed for the adoption of a Limited or [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]], which prohibited atomic testing on the ground, in the atmosphere, or underwater, but did not prohibit testing underground. The United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union were the initial signatories to the treaty. Kennedy signed the treaty into law in August 1963.
====Ireland====
{{see|The Ireland Funds}}
[[Image:JFKIreland2.jpg|right|thumb|President Kennedy in motorcade in Ireland on [[June 27]], [[1963]]]]
On the occasion of his visit to [[Ireland]] in 1963, President Kennedy joined with Irish President [[Éamon de Valera]] to form The American Irish Foundation. The mission of this organization was to foster connections between Americans of Irish descent and the country of their ancestry. Kennedy furthered these connections of cultural solidarity by accepting a grant of [[armorial bearings]] from the [[Chief Herald of Ireland]]. Kennedy had near-legendary status in Ireland, as the first person of Irish heritage to have a position of world power. Irish citizens who were alive in 1963 often have very strong memories of Kennedy's momentous visit.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/27/newsid_4461000/4461115.stm |title=1963: Warm welcome for JFK in Ireland |accessdate=2007-10-04 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref> He also visited the original cottage where previous Kennedys had lived before emigrating to America, and said: "This is where it all began …" On [[December 22]], [[2006]], the Irish Justice Department released declassified police documents that indicated that Kennedy was the subject of three death threats during this visit. It was interpreted as a hoax.<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20061229/ai_n17092126 JFK faced 3 death threats during '63 visit to Ireland | Deseret News (Salt Lake City) | Find Articles at BNET.com<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
====Iraq====
In 1963, the Kennedy administration backed a coup against the government of [[Iraq]] headed by [[Abd al-Karim Qasim|General Abdel Karim Kassem]], who five years earlier had deposed the Western-allied Iraqi monarchy. The CIA helped the new [[Baath Party]] government led by [[Abdul Salam Arif]] in ridding the country of suspected leftists and Communists. In a [[Baathist]] bloodbath, the government used lists of suspected Communists and other leftists provided by the CIA, to systematically murder untold numbers of Iraq's educated elite — killings in which [[Saddam Hussein]] himself is said to have participated. The victims included hundreds of doctors, teachers, technicians, lawyers and other professionals as well as military and political figures.<ref name=saddam> {{cite web|url=http://readthese.blogspot.com/2003_12_15_readthese_archive.html |title=A Tyrant 40 Years in the Making |accessdate=2007-09-18 |date=2003-12-15 |work=NEW YORK TIMES}}</ref><ref>"The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq", Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978; Peter and Marion Sluglett, "Iraq Since 1958" London, I.B. Taurus, 1990</ref><ref>Regarding the CIA's "Health Alteration Committee's work in Iraq, see U.S. Senate's Church Committee Interim Report on Assassination, page 181, Note 1 </ref> According to an [[op-ed]] in the New York Times, the U.S. sent arms to the new regime, weapons later used against the same [[Kurd]]ish insurgents the U.S. supported against Kassem and then abandoned. American and UK oil and other interests, including [[Mobil]], [[Bechtel]] and [[British Petroleum]], were conducting business in Iraq.<ref name="saddam"/>
===Domestic policy===
Kennedy called his domestic program the "[[New Frontier]]". It ambitiously promised federal funding for [[education]], [[medical care]] for the elderly, and government intervention to halt the recession. Kennedy also promised an end to [[racial discrimination]]. In 1963, he proposed a [[tax reform]] which included income [[tax cuts]], but this was not passed by Congress until 1964, after his death. Few of Kennedy's major programs passed Congress during his lifetime, although, under his successor Johnson, Congress did vote them through in 1964–65.
====Federal death penalty====
As President, Kennedy oversaw the last pre-[[Furman v. Georgia|Furman]] federal execution,<ref>[http://users.bestweb.net/~rg/execution/DATA%20FEDERAL.htm Executions 1790 to 1963]</ref> and, as of 2008, the last military execution. [[Governor of Iowa]] [[Harold Hughes]], an death penalty opponent, personally contacted Kennedy to request clemency for [[Victor Feguer]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9800E3DF1F38F935A35756C0A9679C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2 |title= Federal Executions Have Been Rare but May Increase |date=[[May 6]], [[2001]] |author=Carey Goldberg |work=The New York Times}}</ref> who was sentenced to death by a federal court in Iowa, but Kennedy turned down the request<ref>[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/feguer3.html Letter from Kennedy to the Attorney General]</ref> and Feguer was executed on [[March 15]], [[1963]].
====Civil rights====
[[Image:JFK delivers State of the Union Address, 14 January 1963.jpg|thumb|left|Kennedy delivers the 1963 [[State of the Union Address]], [[January 14]]]]
The turbulent end of state-sanctioned racial discrimination was one of the most pressing domestic issues of Kennedy's era. The [[United States Supreme Court]] had ruled in 1954 that [[racial segregation]] in public schools was unconstitutional. However, many schools, especially in southern states, did not obey the Supreme Court's judgment. Segregation on buses, in restaurants, movie theaters, bathrooms, and other public places remained. Kennedy supported [[racial integration]] and civil rights, and during the 1960 campaign he telephoned [[Coretta Scott King]], wife of the jailed Reverend [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]], which perhaps drew some additional black support to his candidacy. John and Robert Kennedy's intervention secured the early release of King from jail.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.lib.lsu.edu/hum/mlk/srs216.html |title= Martin Luther King, Jr. Chronology |accessdate=2007-09-20 |last=Brown |first=Mitchell |publisher=[[Louisiana State University]]}}</ref>
In 1962, [[James Meredith]] tried to enroll at the [[University of Mississippi]], but he was prevented from doing so by white students. Kennedy responded by sending some 400 [[federal marshals]] and 3,000 troops to ensure that Meredith could enroll in his first class. Kennedy also assigned federal marshals to protect [[Freedom Riders]].
As President, Kennedy initially believed the grassroots movement for civil rights would only anger many Southern whites and make it even more difficult to pass civil rights laws through Congress, which was dominated by Southern Democrats, and he distanced himself
from it. As a result, many civil rights leaders viewed Kennedy as unsupportive of their efforts.
On [[June 11]], [[1963]], President Kennedy intervened when [[Alabama]] Governor [[George Wallace]] blocked the doorway to the [[University of Alabama]] to stop two [[African American]] students, [[Vivian Malone]] and [[James Hood]], from enrolling. George Wallace moved aside after being confronted by federal marshals, Deputy Attorney General [[Nicholas Katzenbach]] and the Alabama [[United States National Guard|National Guard]]. That evening Kennedy gave his famous civil rights address on national television and radio.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/jfkcivilrights.htm |title=Civil Rights Address |accessdate=2007-09-20 |last=Kennedy |first=John F. |work=AmericanRhetoric.com}}</ref> Kennedy proposed what would become the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]].<ref> {{cite web|url=http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/39.htmights.htm |title=CIVIL RIGHTS ACT |accessdate=2007-09-20 |work=usinfo.state.gov}}</ref>
The modern feminist movement began <ref>* Davis, F. (1999). ''Moving the mountain: The women's movement in America since 1960''. Chicago: University of Illinois.
* Martin, J. M. (2003). ''The presidency and women: Promise, performance, and illusion''. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M.
</ref>when Kennedy signed the Executive Order creating the [[Presidential Commission on the Status of Women]] in 1961. Commission statistics revealed that women were also experiencing discrimination. Their final report doccumenting legal and cultural barriers was issued in October 1963, a month before Kennedy's assassination.
====Immigration====
John F. Kennedy initially proposed an overhaul of American immigration policy that later was to become the [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965]], sponsored by Kennedy's brother Senator [[Ted Kennedy|Edward Kennedy]]. It dramatically shifted the source of immigration from Northern and Western European countries towards immigration from Latin America and Asia and shifted the emphasis of selection of immigrants towards facilitating family reunification.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5393857 |title=Q&A: Sen. Kennedy on Immigration, Then & Now |accessdate=2007-09-20 |last=Ludden |first=Jennifer |work=NPR}}</ref> Kennedy wanted to dismantle the selection of immigrants based on country of origin and saw this as an extension of his civil rights policies.<ref> {{cite web|url= http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=60440 |title=From Press Office: Senator John F. Kennedy, Immigration and Naturalization Laws, Hyannis Inn Motel, Hyannis, MA |accessdate=2007-09-20 |date=1960-08-06 |publisher=americanpresidency.org}}</ref>
====Space program====
[[Image:JFK inspects Mercury capsule, 23 February 1962.jpg|thumb|right|President Kennedy looks at the spacecraft [[Mercury Atlas 6|Friendship 7]], which made three earth orbits piloted by astronaut [[John Glenn]], [[February 23]], [[1962]], [[Cape Canaveral, Florida]]]]
Kennedy was eager for the United States to lead the way in the [[space race]]. [[Sergei Khrushchev]] says Kennedy approached his father, Nikita, twice about a "joint venture" in space exploration—in June 1961 and autumn 1963. On the first occasion, the Soviet Union was far ahead of America in terms of space technology. Kennedy first made the goal for landing a man on the [[Moon]] in speaking to a Joint Session of Congress on [[May 25]], [[1961]], saying <blockquote>"First, I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him back safely to the earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish."<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Speeches/JFK/Urgent+National+Needs+Page+4.htm |title=Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs Page 4 |accessdate=2007-09-20 |last=Kennedy |first=John F. |date=1961-05-25 |publisher=[[John F. Kennedy Library]]}}</ref> </blockquote> Kennedy later made a speech at [[Rice University]] on September 12, 1962, in which he said <blockquote> "No nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay behind in this race for space." </blockquote> and <blockquote>"We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard."<ref> {{cite web|url=http://webcast.rice.edu/speeches/19620912kennedy.html |title=President John F. Kennedy |accessdate=2007-09-20 |last=Kennedy |first=John F. |date=1962-09-12 |publisher=[[Rice University]]}}</ref> </blockquote> On the second approach to Khrushchev, the Russian was persuaded that cost-sharing was beneficial and American space technology was forging ahead. The U.S. had launched a [[geostationary]] satellite and Kennedy had asked Congress to approve more than $25 billion for the [[Apollo Project]].
Khrushchev agreed to a joint venture in late 1963, but Kennedy died before the agreement could be formalized. On [[July 20]], [[1969]], almost six years after JFK's death, Project Apollo's goal was finally realized when men landed on the Moon.
===Cabinet===
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="2" style="float: left; margin:1em 1em 1em 0; border:1px solid #000000;font-size:85%;" align="left"
!bgcolor="#dcdcdc" colspan="3"|The Kennedy Cabinet
|-
|align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[President of the United States|President]]||align="left" |'''John F. Kennedy'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align="left"|'''[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of State|State]]||align="left"|'''[[Dean Rusk]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury]]||align="left"|'''[[C. Douglas Dillon]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense]]||align="left"|'''[[Robert S. McNamara]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[Attorney General of the United States|Justice]]||align="left"|'''[[Robert F. Kennedy]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align="left"|'''[[J. Edward Day]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''[[John A. Gronouski]]'''||align="left"|1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior]]||align="left"|'''[[Stewart L. Udall]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Agriculture]]||align="left"|'''[[Orville L. Freeman]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Commerce]]||align="left"|'''[[Luther H. Hodges]]'''||align="left"|1961–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Labor]]||align="left"|'''[[Arthur J. Goldberg]]'''||align="left"|1961–1962
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''[[W. Willard Wirtz]]'''||align="left"|1962–1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare|HEW]]||align="left"|'''[[Abraham A. Ribicoff]]'''||align="left"|1961–1962
|-
|align="left"| ||align="left"|'''[[Anthony J. Celebrezze]]'''||align="left"|1962–1963
|}
<br clear="all">
===Supreme Court appointments===
Kennedy appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:
*'''[[Byron Raymond White]]''' — 1962
*'''[[Arthur Joseph Goldberg]]''' — 1962
==Image, social life and family==
{{see|Kennedy political family}}
[[Image:JFK and family in Hyannis Port, 04 August 1962.jpg|thumb|right|John F. Kennedy with wife Jacqueline and children, 1962]]
Kennedy and his wife "Jackie" were very young in comparison to earlier presidents and first ladies, and were both extraordinarily popular in ways more common to [[pop singer]]s and [[movie star]]s than politicians, influencing fashion trends and becoming the subjects of numerous photo spreads in popular magazines. Jacqueline bought new [[art]] and [[furniture]], and eventually restored all the rooms in the White House.
Outside the White House lawn the Kennedys established a preschool, swimming pool and tree house. Jacqueline allowed very few photographs of the children to be taken of them but when she was gone, the President would allow the White House photographer Cecil Stoughton to take pictures of the children. The resulting photos are probably the most famous of the children, and especially of John Jr., after he was photographed playing underneath the President’s desk.
The president was closely tied to popular culture. Songs such as "Twisting at the White House" and "[[Camelot (musical)|Camelot]]" (the popular [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] play) were part of the JFK culture. [[Vaughn Meader|Vaughn Meader's]] "First Family" comedy album – an album parodying the President, First Lady, their family and administration – sold about 4 million copies. On [[May 19]], [[1962]], [[Marilyn Monroe]] [[Happy Birthday, Mr. President|sang for the president]] at a large birthday party in [[Madison Square Garden]]. The Kennedys also had ties to more serious culture; artists such as Pablo Casals were invited to the White House (Casals performed on Nov. 13, 1961).
Behind the glamorous facade, the Kennedys also suffered many personal tragedies. Jacqueline suffered a miscarriage in 1955 and gave birth to a stillborn daughter, [[Arabella Kennedy]], in 1956. The death of their newborn son, [[Patrick Bouvier Kennedy]], in August 1963, was a great loss. Since Kennedy's death, allegations have been made that Kennedy carried on numerous extramarital dalliances during his presidency with women such as [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]] actress [[Marilyn Monroe]] and [[socialite]] [[Mary Pinchot Meyer]].<ref>{{cite news | first=PATRICIA | last=O'BRIEN | coauthors= | title=When History Had Secrets | date=[[1998-12-20]] | publisher=[[New york times]] | url =http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9802E3DB113AF933A15751C1A96E958260 | work = | pages = | accessdate = 2007-09-20 | language =}}</ref>
The [[charisma]] of Kennedy and his family led to the figurative designation of "Camelot" for his administration, credited by his widow to his affection for the contemporary Broadway [[musical theatre|musical]] of the same name. She gave an interview to [[Theodore White]], where she mentioned the musical ''Camelot'',<ref>[http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Archives+and+Manuscripts/fa_white_theodore.htm The Personal Papers of Theodore H. White (1915–1986): Series 11. Camelot Documents], ''John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum''</ref> and White later said that he had "found the headline".
He holds a record acknowledged by the ''[[Guinness Book of World Records]]'' as the world's fastest speaker in public life, with a speed of 327 words in one minute in a speech given in December 1961.<ref>"In public life the highest speed recorded is a 327 words per min burst in a speech made in December 1961 by John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1917–63), then President of the United States." – ''The Guinness Book of Records 1988'', UK edition, p.18, ISBN 0-85112-868-8.</ref>
In October 1951, during his third term as [[Massachusetts's 11th congressional district|Massachusetts 11th district]] [[United States House of Representatives|congressman]], the then 34-year-old Kennedy embarked on a seven-week Asian trip to [[Israel]], [[India]], [[Vietnam]] and [[Japan]] with his then 25-year-old brother [[Robert F. Kennedy|Robert]] (who had just graduated from [[law school]] four months earlier) and his then 27-year-old sister [[Patricia Kennedy Lawford|Patricia]]. Because of their eight-year separation in age, the two brothers had previously seen little of each other. This {{convert|25000|mi|km|-3|sing=on}} trip was the first extended time they had spent together and resulted in their becoming best friends in addition to being brothers. Robert was [[campaign manager]] for Kennedy's successful 1952 Senate campaign and successful 1960 Presidential campaign. The two brothers worked closely together from 1957 to 1959 on the Senate Select Committee on Improper Activities in the Labor and Management Field ([[Senate Rackets Committee]]) when Robert was its chief counsel. During Kennedy's presidency, Robert served in his [[United States Cabinet|Cabinet]] as [[United States Attorney General|Attorney General]] and was his closest advisor.
Kennedy came in third (behind Martin Luther King, Jr. and [[Mother Teresa]]) in a [[Gallup Poll|Gallup]] [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|list of the most admired people of the twentieth century]].<ref>{{cite book | title = The Gallup Poll 1999 | publisher = Scholarly Resources Inc. | date= 1999 | location = Wilmington, DE | pages = 248–249}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Greatest of the Century | date= 1999-12-20 and 1999-12-21 | publisher = Gallup/CNN/USA Today Poll | url = http://www.pollingreport.com/20th.htm | accessdate = 2007-01-05}}</ref>
In 1946, Kennedy dated actress [[Gene Tierney]], who was separated from her then-husband fashion designer [[Oleg Cassini]]. In her book ''Self-portrait'', Ms. Tierney recalled that over an informal brunch, "Jack" told her that even after she divorced Cassini, he couldn't marry her. If he was to be the first elected Catholic President, he could never marry a divorced woman. Moreover, she was also a Protestant.
Seymour Hersh's ''The Dark Side of Camelot'' (1998) presents a critical analysis of the Kennedy administration, stating that Kennedy "was probably one of the unhealthiest men ever to sit in the Oval Office."
==Assassination==
{{main|John F. Kennedy assassination}}
[[Image:JFKmotorcade.jpg|thumb|left|JFK, Jackie, and the Connallys in the Presidential limousine before the assassination]]
President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, at 12:30 p.m. [[Central Time Zone (North America)|Central Standard Time]] on [[November 22]], [[1963]], while on a political trip to Texas. He was shot twice in the neck and head, and was pronounced dead at 1:00 p.m. [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] was arrested at a [[movie theater]] at about 1:50 p.m. He denied shooting anyone, claiming he was a [[wikt:patsy|patsy]], and was killed by [[Jack Ruby]] on [[November 24]], before he could be [[indictment|indicted]] or [[jury|tried]].
President Johnson created the [[Warren Commission]]—chaired by Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]]—to investigate the assassination. It concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, but this remains disputed by some scholars and eyewitnesses. [[Gallup Poll]]s taken since the mid-1960s have consistently shown that approximately 80% of the American people did not believe the Commission's findings.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} Conspiracy theories about the assassination (see [[Grassy knoll]]) and supposed cover-up have been put forward and have become commonplace in popular culture.
===Burial===
[[Image:JFK grave.jpg|thumb|right|Kennedy's grave at Arlington National Cemetery]]
On [[March 14]], [[1967]], Kennedy's body was moved to a permanent burial place and memorial at [[Arlington National Cemetery]], a right he earned by serving as an officer in the [[United States Navy]]. Kennedy is buried with his wife and their deceased minor children, and his brother, the late Senator [[Robert Kennedy]] is also buried nearby. His grave is lit with an "[[John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame|Eternal Flame]]," a last minute request of Jackie Kennedy that was powered by propane during the funeral service but has since been attached by several hundred feet of underground pipe to a natural gas main. In the film ''[[The Fog of War]]'', then Secretary of Defense [[Robert McNamara]] claims that he picked the location in the cemetery — a location which Jackie agreed was suitable. Kennedy and [[William Howard Taft]] are the only two U.S. Presidents buried at Arlington.
==Legacy==
[[Image:Kennedy funeral procession leaves White House, 25 November 1963.jpg|thumb|left|Kennedy's casket departs the White House]]
[[Television]] became the primary source by which people were kept informed of events surrounding John F. Kennedy's assassination. Newspapers were kept as souvenirs rather than sources of updated information. All three major U.S. television networks suspended their regular schedules and switched to all-news coverage from 22 November through [[25 November]] [[1963]]. [[State funeral of John F. Kennedy|Kennedy's state funeral procession]] and the murder of Lee Harvey Oswald were all broadcast live in America and in other places around the world. The [[state funeral]] was the first of three in a span of 12 months: The other two were for [[Douglas MacArthur|General Douglas MacArthur]] and [[Herbert Hoover]].
The assassination had an effect on many people, not only in the U.S. but also among the world population. Many vividly remember where they were when first learning of the news that Kennedy was assassinated, as with the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor]] on [[December 7]], [[1941]] before it and the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon on September 11, 2001]] after it. U.N. Ambassador [[Adlai Stevenson]] said of the assassination, "all of us… will bear the grief of his death until the day of ours."
Ultimately, the death of President Kennedy and the ensuing confusion surrounding the facts of his assassination are of political and historical importance insofar as they marked a decline in the faith of the American people in the political establishment — a point made by commentators from [[Gore Vidal]] to [[Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.]]
Kennedy's continuation of Presidents [[Harry S. Truman]]'s and [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]'s policies of giving economic and military aid to the [[Vietnam War]] preceded President Johnson's escalation of the conflict. This contributed to a decade of national difficulties and disappointment on the political landscape.
[[Image:John F Kennedy Official Portrait.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Official Presidential portrait]]
Many of Kennedy's speeches (especially his inaugural address) are considered iconic; and despite his relatively short term in office and lack of major legislative changes during his term, Americans regularly vote him as one of the best presidents, in the same league as [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[George Washington]] and [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. Some excerpts of Kennedy's inaugural address are engraved on a plaque at his grave at Arlington.
He was posthumously awarded the [[Pacem in Terris Award]]. It was named after a 1963 [[encyclical]] letter by [[Pope]] [[John XXIII]] that calls upon all people of goodwill to secure peace among all nations. [[Pacem in Terris]] is [[Latin]] for 'Peace on Earth.'
President Kennedy is the only president to have predeceased both his mother and father. He is also the only president to have predeceased his grandparent. His grandmother, [[Mary Josephine Hannon Fitzgerald]], died in 1964, just 8.5 months after his assassination.
===Children===
John F. Kennedy had 2 children that survived infancy. [[Caroline Kennedy|Caroline]] was born in 1957 and [[John F. Kennedy, Jr.|John Jr.]] was born in 1960, just a few weeks after his father was elected. John died in 1999 when the small plane he was piloting crashed en route to [[Martha's Vineyard]], killing him, his wife and his sister-in-law.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/jfkjr/stories/kennedy073199.htm Washingtonpost.com: Kennedy Plane Found to Be Fully Functional<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Caroline is currently the only surviving member of JFK's immediate family. His two other children were Arabella Kennedy ([[August 23]], [[1956]] - [[August 23]], [[1956]]), a [[stillborn]], and [[Patrick Bouvier Kennedy]] ([[August 7]], [[1963]] - [[August 9]], [[1963]]).
In February 2008, media reports surfaced about an [[Illegitimacy|illegitimate]] son of JFK found living in [[Vancouver]], [[Canada]], allegedly the result of an affair he had had with a Texas woman.<ref>[http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/story.html?id=383ad45a-72c5-401d-81ea-1a80111f260b&k=33944 JFK's 'love child' alleged to be living in Vancouver<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> [[Jack Worthington]], who recently revealed his identity to the [[The Globe and Mail]], is requesting a [[DNA test]] with one of the relatives to determine whether or not Kennedy was his biological father. He claims to have been conceived about one month after Kennedy's inauguration as President, in February 1961, after his mother was introduced to the President by Vice-President Johnson[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20080213.wjack13/BNStory/National/home?cid=al_gam_mostview]. After these claims became public, Worthington's immediate family issued a press release denying that he was the son of the fomer president, although Worthington still stuck by his story. Because of a lack of corroborative evidence, Vanity Fair cancelled a planned article on this story [http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/LAC.20080301.WORTHINGTON01/TPStory/?query=jack+worthington.].
===Memorials===
[[Image:KennedyCtr.jpg|thumb|John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.]]
*New York International Airport (formerly known as Idlewild Airport) was renamed [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]] on [[December 24]], [[1963]]. Today, the airport is widely referred to as "JFK."
*The [[Kennedy Expressway|John F. Kennedy Expressway]], a major expressway in [[Chicago]], was renamed for Kennedy by unanimous vote of Chicago City Council a few days after the president's assassination.
*[[John F. Kennedy Boulevard (Tampa, Florida)|Kennedy Blvd]] ([[State Road 60 (Florida)|State Road 60]]) in [[Tampa, Florida]] was renamed for Kennedy in 1964 by unanimous vote of the Tampa City Council. Kennedy visited Tampa on [[November 18]], [[1963]] only four days before his assassination. His motorcade drove five miles (8 km) down Grand Central Avenue to the heart of the business district.
*On [[November 26]], [[1963]], the [[Interstate 65]] bridge, spanning the [[Ohio River]] between [[Louisville, Kentucky]] and [[Jeffersonville, Indiana]], was named the [[John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge]].
*The North Padre Island Causeway, connecting [[Padre Island]] to the [[Texas]] mainland, was renamed the John F. Kennedy Causeway,
*[[NASA]]'s Launch Operations Center at [[Cape Canaveral]] was renamed the [[John F. Kennedy Space Center]]. Cape Canaveral itself was likewise renamed Cape Kennedy, but a referendum passed by Florida voters in 1973 reverted it to its original name.
*A Kennedy memorial was established in [[Runnymede]], [[England]], where the [[Magna Carta]] was sealed.
*A stretch of [[Interstate 95 in Maryland|Interstate 95]] in [[Maryland]], running from the [[Baltimore Beltway]] to the State Line, where it becomes the [[Delaware Turnpike]], had been dedicated by President Kennedy on [[November 14]], [[1963]], eight days before his assassination. It was soon renamed the [[John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway]].
*The U.S. Navy [[aircraft carrier]] ''[[USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)|USS John F. Kennedy]]'' was named on [[April 30]], [[1964]], and served until [[March 23]], [[2007]].
[[Image:2005 Half Dollar Obv Unc P.png|thumb|right|Kennedy has appeared on the U.S. half-dollar coin since 1964]]
[[Image:President Kennedy (bust) on Président-Kennedy Avenue, Montreal, 2005-10-21.JPG|thumb|Bust of JFK, with President Kennedy pavilion behind, on President Kennedy Ave. in Montreal]]
*The John F. Kennedy Presidential Library opened in 1979 as Kennedy's official [[presidential library]].
*[[John F. Kennedy University]] opened in [[Pleasant Hill, California]], in 1964 as a school for adult education.
*The [[John F. Kennedy National Historic Site]] preserves his home in Brookline.
*At Harvard University:
**The [[Harvard Institute of Politics]] serves as a living memorial which promotes public service in his name.
**The School of Government is known as the [[John F. Kennedy School of Government]].
*The [[John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts]] opened in 1971 in [[Washington, D.C.]] as a living memorial to him.
*Hundreds of schools across the U.S. were named in Kennedy's honor. The first school in the [[United States]] named after had been the [[Kennedy Middle School (Cupertino, California)|Kennedy Middle School]], in [[Cupertino, California]], while he was alive. In the week after Kennedy's death, the first schools renamed for him were the Kennedy Elementary School in [[Butte, Montana]] and the John F. Kennedy Middle School on Long Island in [[Bethpage, New York]].<ref> "Kennedy Memorials Surge Continuing Across World," ''Charleston (W.V.) Daily Mail'', [[November 29]], [[1963]] </ref>
*Philadelphia Municipal Stadium was renamed [[John F. Kennedy Stadium]] in 1964. It was razed in 1992 and is now the current site of the [[Wachovia Center]].
*Kennedy was posthumously awarded the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] in 1963.
*Since 1964, Kennedy's portrait has appeared on the [[United States half dollar coin]], replacing [[Benjamin Franklin]].
*[[Yad Kennedy]], a memorial to the U.S. president, was established on a crest in the Jerusalem Forest, on the southwest outskirts of [[Jerusalem]] near [[Aminadav]].
*One of the [[Solomon Islands]] is named [[Kennedy Island]].
*The city of [[Evansville, Indiana]] observed John F. Kennedy Day on [[November 22]], [[2003]] to mark the 40th anniversary of his death.
*One of the five residential towers at the [[University of Massachusetts Amherst]] is named Kennedy Tower in his honor.
*In February 2007, Kennedy's name, along with his wife's, was included on a list taken aboard the Japanese ''[[SELENE|Kaguya]]'' spacecraft to the [[Moon]], as part of [[Planetary Society|The Planetary Society]]'s "Wish Upon the Moon" campaign.<ref>{{cite press release | title =Send a New Year's Message to the Moon on Japan's SELENE Mission: Buzz Aldrin, Ray Bradbury and More Have Wished Upon the Moon | publisher = The Planetary Society | date= 2007-01-11 | url =http://www.planetary.org/about/press/releases/2007/0111_Send_a_New_Years_Message_to_the_Moon.html | format = | language = | accessdate =2007-07-14 | quote = }}</ref>
*The U.S. Army's [[John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School]] is named after the late president because of his support for the Army Rangers and [[United States Army Special Forces|Green Berets]].
*The park in Eyre Square, Galway City, Ireland is called John F. Kennedy Park, after his visit in 1963.
*One suggestion that was rejected was that the State of [[West Virginia]] be renamed in Kennedy's honor.<ref> "Plan to Rename West Virginia for JFK is Opposed", ''The Cumberland (Md.) News'', [[December 7]], [[1963]], p6 </ref> Emile J. Hodel, editor of the ''Post-Herald'' of [[Beckley, West Virginia]], wrote an editorial asking, "Why not change the name of West Virginia to Kennedy? Or perhaps Kennediana? What greater respect could the man receive than the renaming of the state he said he held most dear, after his home state of Massachusetts, in his honor?"<ref> ''Beckley Post-Herald'', [[November 29]], [[1963]], p6 </ref>
*A popular figure in predominantly Catholic Quebec, Kennedy was honored with a street in [[Montreal]], called President Kennedy Avenue. A bust of JFK and a building on science campus of the French-language university ''[[Université du Québec à Montréal]]'' named the President Kennedy pavilion are located at the street's western end.
==See also==
{{portal|United States Navy|United States Department of the Navy Seal.svg}}
{{wikiquote|John F. Kennedy}}
<div class="references" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
*[[History of the United States (1945–1964)]]
*[[Jesuit Ivy]]
*[[Peace Corps]]
*[[Kennedy Doctrine]]
*[[Operation Northwoods]]
*[[Zapruder film]], photographer of the primary film of assassination
*[[Orville Nix]], photographer of the second film of assassination
*[[Robert F. Kennedy assassination]]
*[[Kennedy Curse]]
*[[List of assassinated American politicians]]
*[[List of United States Presidents who died in office]]
*[[Coincidence theory]]
* "[[Senator, you are no Jack Kennedy]]" retort by Senator [[Lloyd Bentsen]], 1988 VP debate
*[[JFK Reloaded]], a [[video game]]
</div>
==References==
===Primary sources===
* Goldzwig, Steven R. and Dionisopoulos, George N., eds. ''In a Perilous Hour: The Public Address of John F. Kennedy'', text and analysis of key speeches (1995)
===Secondary sources===
* Brauer, Carl. ''John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction'' (1977)
* Burner, David. ''John F. Kennedy and a New Generation'' (1988)
*{{Cite book | last=Dallek | first=Robert | title=An Unfinished Life : John F. Kennedy, 1917 – 1963 | publisher=Brown, Little | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-316-17238-3}}
* Collier, Peter & Horowitz, David. ''The Kennedys'' (1984)
* Cottrell, John. ''Assassination! The World Stood Still'' (1964)
* Fay, Paul B., Jr. ''The Pleasure of His Company'' (1966)
* Freedman, Lawrence. ''Kennedy's Wars: Berlin, Cuba, Laos and Vietnam'' (2000)
* Fursenko, Aleksandr and Timothy Naftali. ''One Hell of a Gamble: Khrushchev, Castro and Kennedy, 1958–1964'' (1997)
* Giglio, James. ''The Presidency of John F. Kennedy'' (1991), standard scholarly overview of policies
* Harper, Paul, and Joann P. Krieg eds. ''John F. Kennedy: The Promise Revisited'' (1988), scholarly articles on presidency
* Harris, Seymour E. ''The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy'' (1962)
* Heath, Jim F. ''Decade of Disillusionment: The Kennedy–Johnson Years'' (1976), general survey of decade
* Hellmann, John. ''The Kennedy Obsession: The American Myth of JFK'' (1997), negative assessment
* Hersh, Seymour. ''The Dark Side of Camelot'' (1997), highly negative assessment
* House Select Committee on Assassinations. ''Final Assassinations Report'' (1979)
* Kunz, Diane B. ''The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s'' (1994)
* Manchester, William. ''Portrait of a President: John F. Kennedy in Profile'' (1967)
* Manchester, William. ''The Death of a President: November 20-November 25'' (1967)
* O'Brien, Michael. ''John F. Kennedy: A Biography'' (2005), the most detailed biography
* Parmet, Herbert. ''Jack: The Struggles of John F. Kennedy'' (1980)
* Parmet, Herbert. ''JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy'' (1983)
* Piper, Michael Collins. ''Final Judgment'' (2004: sixth edition). American Free Press
* Reeves, Richard. ''President Kennedy: Profile of Power'' (1993), balanced assessment of policies
* Reeves, Thomas. ''A Question of Character: A Life of John F. Kennedy'' (1991) hostile assessment of his character flaws
* Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. ''A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House'' (1965), by a close advisor
* Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. ''Robert Kennedy And His Times'' (2002)
*[[Jean Edward Smith|Smith, Jean Edward]]. ''Kennedy and Defense: The Formative Years''. Air University Review (March–April 1967) [http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1967/mar-apr/smith.html]
* Smith, Jean Edward. ''The Defense of Berlin'', Baltimore. Johns Hopkins Press (1963)
* Smith, Jean Edward. ''The Wall as Watershed'', Arlington, Virginia. Institute for Defense Analysis (1966)
* Smith, Jean Edward. "The Bay of Pigs: The Unanswered Questions". ''The Nation'', pp. 360–363 ([[April 13]], [[1964]])
* Sorensen, Theodore. ''Kennedy'' (1966), by a close advisor
* Walsh, Kenneth T. ''Air Force One: A History of the Presidents and Their Planes'' (2003)
===Citations===
{{reflist|2}}
==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Kennedy inauguration footage.ogg |
title = Kennedy inauguration footage |
description = Newsreel footage of the inauguration ceremony and speeches. (18.7 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}
President Kennedy comments on the possible prevention of the Cold War. [[Image:JFK ColdWarsOrigin.ogg|thumb|left|The sound file for President Kennedy]]
The sound file of the message to [[Turkey|Turkish]] President [[Cemal Gursel]] and The Turkish People on the Anniversary of the Death of [[Kemal Ataturk]], [[November 10]], [[1963]] [[Image:JFKennedy November1963.ogg|thumb|left|The sound file for Kennedy's speech]]
The Text of the message to Turkish President Cemal Gursel and The Turkish People on the Anniversary of the Death of Kemal Ataturk, [[November 10]], [[1963]] [[Image:JFKennedy1963 text.pdf|thumb|left|The text of Kennedy's speech]]
*[http://www.electricdisk.com/downloads/1963_11_22_ATC_JFK_Tape.mp3 The White House Situation Room reports on the assassination to an airplane with several Cabinet members as it flies to Hawaii, Nov 22,1963] (MP3 format 7.5 MB 33-Min.){{-}}
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|John F. Kennedy}}
*{{imdb name|0448123}}
*{{findagrave|574|John F. Kennedy}}
*[http://media.myfoxdfw.com/JFKvideo Historical TV Footage from Dallas TV Station KDFW] Exclusive television coverage -- most from the KRLD -TV/KDFW Collection at the Sixth Floor Museum at Dealey Plaza
*[http://www.americanbooktour.com/book_reclaiming_history_part_2.asp Video of Vincent Bugliosi discussing JFK assassination]
*[http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/index.php/academic/americanpresident/kennedy Extensive essay on John F. Kennedy] (with shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs)
*[http://millercenter.virginia.edu/scripps/digitalarchive/speechDetail/27 Full audio of Kennedy speeches via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa)]
*[http://millercenter.virginia.edu/scripps/digitalarchive/presidentialrecordings/kennedy/index Kennedy's Secret White House Recordings via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa)]
*[http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/jfkinaugural.htm Video, Audio, Text of John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address]
*[http://youtube.com/watch?v=zkzjodKAQhA Kennedy discusses Cuban Missile Crisis with former President Eisenhower]
*[http://www.jfklibrary.org/ John F. Kennedy Library]
*[http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/jk35.html The White House Biography]
*[http://search.yale.edu:8765/query.html?col=ycsg&col=opa&col=yaleuniv&col=dynamic&qt=John+F.+Kennedy&charset=iso-8859-1&qp=%2Burl%3Awww.yale.edu%2Flawweb%2Favalon JFK at the Avalon Project]
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/ Kennedy Administration Official Documentary Historical Record of Major Foreign Policy Decisions] from [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/ The Foreign Relations of the United States] Series, [[United States Department of State]], Office of the Historian, [[United States Government Printing Office]], Washington, D.C.
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/6378463.stm New video footage released of JFK's last moments]
*{{worldcat id|id=lccn-n79-55297}}
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[[Category:American Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:Assassinated American politicians]]
[[Category:Assassinated United States Presidents]]
[[Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery]]
[[Category:Cold War leaders]]
[[Category:Deaths by firearm in the United States]]
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[[Category:United States vice-presidential candidates, 1956]]
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[[Category:History of the United States (1945–1964)]]
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[[Category:John F. Kennedy assassination]]
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[[Category:People from Boston, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States]]
[[Category:Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography winners]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Navy and Marine Corps Medal]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Purple Heart medal]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic activists]]
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