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== HISTORICAL BACKGROUND  ==
 
== HISTORICAL BACKGROUND  ==
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Origins: The Vietnamese trace the origins of their culture and nation to the fertile plains of the  
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'''Origins:''' The Vietnamese trace the origins of their culture and nation to the fertile plains of the  
 
Red River Delta in northern Vietnam. After centuries of developing a civilization and economy  
 
Red River Delta in northern Vietnam. After centuries of developing a civilization and economy  
 
based on the cultivation of irrigated rice, in the tenth century the Vietnamese began expanding  
 
based on the cultivation of irrigated rice, in the tenth century the Vietnamese began expanding  
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develop a sense of nationhood throughout this narrow, 1,500-kilometer stretch of land and to  
 
develop a sense of nationhood throughout this narrow, 1,500-kilometer stretch of land and to  
 
maintain it against internal and external pressures.  
 
maintain it against internal and external pressures.  
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China was the chief source of Vietnam's foreign ideas and the earliest threat to its national  
 
China was the chief source of Vietnam's foreign ideas and the earliest threat to its national  
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Vietnamese assimilated Chinese influence in the areas of administration, law, education,  
 
Vietnamese assimilated Chinese influence in the areas of administration, law, education,  
 
literature, language, and culture. Even during the following nine centuries of Vietnamese  
 
literature, language, and culture. Even during the following nine centuries of Vietnamese  
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independence, lasting from the late tenth century until the second half of the nineteenth century,  
 
independence, lasting from the late tenth century until the second half of the nineteenth century,  
the Chinese exerted considerable cultural, if not political, influence, particularly on the elite.  
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the Chinese exerted considerable cultural, if not political, influence, particularly on the elite.
 
   
   
 
   
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Colonial Period, Independence, and War: After 900 years of independence and following a  
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'''Colonial Period,''' Independence, and War: After 900 years of independence and following a  
 
period of disunity and rebellion, the French colonial era began during the 1858–83 period, when  
 
period of disunity and rebellion, the French colonial era began during the 1858–83 period, when  
 
the French seized control of the nation, dividing it into three parts: the north (Tonkin), the center  
 
the French seized control of the nation, dividing it into three parts: the north (Tonkin), the center  
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Chi Minh's communist government ruling the North from Hanoi and Ngo Dinh Diem's regime,  
 
Chi Minh's communist government ruling the North from Hanoi and Ngo Dinh Diem's regime,  
 
supported by the United States, ruling the South from Saigon (later Ho Chi Minh City).  
 
supported by the United States, ruling the South from Saigon (later Ho Chi Minh City).  
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As a result of the Second Indochina War (1954–75), Viet Cong—communist forces in South  
 
As a result of the Second Indochina War (1954–75), Viet Cong—communist forces in South  
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suffered more than 4 million injuries during the U.S. involvement in the war.  
 
suffered more than 4 million injuries during the U.S. involvement in the war.  
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Unified Vietnam: In the post-1975 period, it was immediately apparent that the popularity and  
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'''Unified Vietnam:''' In the post-1975 period, it was immediately apparent that the popularity and  
 
effectiveness of Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) policies did not necessarily extend to the  
 
effectiveness of Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) policies did not necessarily extend to the  
 
party’s peacetime nation-building plans. Having unified North and South politically, the VCP  
 
party’s peacetime nation-building plans. Having unified North and South politically, the VCP  
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million Vietnamese were relocated to previously uncultivated land called “new economic zones”  
 
million Vietnamese were relocated to previously uncultivated land called “new economic zones”  
 
for reeducation.  
 
for reeducation.  
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The harsh postwar crackdown on remnants of capitalism in the South led to the collapse of the  
 
The harsh postwar crackdown on remnants of capitalism in the South led to the collapse of the  
 
economy during the 1980s. With the economy in shambles, Vietnam’s government altered its  
 
economy during the 1980s. With the economy in shambles, Vietnam’s government altered its  
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course and adopted consensus policies that bridged the divergent views of pragmatists and  
 
course and adopted consensus policies that bridged the divergent views of pragmatists and  
 
communist traditionalists. In 1986 Nguyen Van Linh, who was elevated to VCP general  
 
communist traditionalists. In 1986 Nguyen Van Linh, who was elevated to VCP general  
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alongside state-owned land, and in 1990 the government passed a law encouraging the  
 
alongside state-owned land, and in 1990 the government passed a law encouraging the  
 
establishment of private businesses.  
 
establishment of private businesses.  
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Compounding economic difficulties were new military challenges. In the late 1970s, two  
 
Compounding economic difficulties were new military challenges. In the late 1970s, two  
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and overran Phnom Penh, the Cambodian capital, driving out the incumbent Khmer Rouge  
 
and overran Phnom Penh, the Cambodian capital, driving out the incumbent Khmer Rouge  
 
communist regime and initiating a prolonged military occupation of the country.  
 
communist regime and initiating a prolonged military occupation of the country.  
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In February and March 1979, China retaliated against Vietnam's incursion into Cambodia by  
 
In February and March 1979, China retaliated against Vietnam's incursion into Cambodia by  
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Beijing. China also was displeased with Vietnam because of its improving relationship with the  
 
Beijing. China also was displeased with Vietnam because of its improving relationship with the  
 
Soviet Union.  
 
Soviet Union.  
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During its incursion into Cambodia in 1978–89, Vietnam’s international isolation extended to  
 
During its incursion into Cambodia in 1978–89, Vietnam’s international isolation extended to  
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two countries settled their long-standing border dispute in 1999. China is now a major trading  
 
two countries settled their long-standing border dispute in 1999. China is now a major trading  
 
partner, and Vietnam models its economic policies after China’s.  
 
partner, and Vietnam models its economic policies after China’s.  
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As of late 2005, a three-person collective leadership was responsible for governing Vietnam.  
 
As of late 2005, a three-person collective leadership was responsible for governing Vietnam.  
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prime minister (Phan Van Khai, September 1997– ), and the president (Tran Duc Luong,  
 
prime minister (Phan Van Khai, September 1997– ), and the president (Tran Duc Luong,  
 
September 1997– ). General Secretary Manh headed up not only the VCP but also the 15-
 
September 1997– ). General Secretary Manh headed up not only the VCP but also the 15-
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member Politburo. President Luong was chief of state, and Prime Minister Khai was head of  
 
member Politburo. President Luong was chief of state, and Prime Minister Khai was head of  
 
government. The leadership is promoting a “socialist-oriented market economy” and friendly  
 
government. The leadership is promoting a “socialist-oriented market economy” and friendly  
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achieve this goal by the end of 2005. Vietnam still needs to conclude bilateral agreements with  
 
achieve this goal by the end of 2005. Vietnam still needs to conclude bilateral agreements with  
 
the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Mexico, and the Dominican Republic in order to  
 
the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Mexico, and the Dominican Republic in order to  
qualify for membership.  
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qualify for membership.
 
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== GEOGRAPHY ==
 
== GEOGRAPHY ==