Directory:Vietnam
COUNTRY PROFILE: VIETNAM Library of Congress December 2005
Formal Name: Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Cong Hoa Xa Hoi Chu Nghia Viet Nam).
Short Form: Vietnam.
Term for Citizen(s): Vietnamese.
Capital: Hanoi.
Major Cities: With 5.6 million people, Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon) is the most populous city. Hanoi has a population of 3 million. Other major cities are Danang, Haiphong, and Can Tho.
Independence: Vietnam declared independence from Japan and France on September 2, 1945. However, Vietnam remained under French control until the communist Viet Minh defeated French forces at Dien Bien Phu in 1954.
Public Holidays: Official holidays are New Year’s (January 1), Tet or Lunar New Year (movable date in January or February), Liberation Day to commemorate the fall of Saigon (April 30), Labor Day (May 1), and Independence Day to commemorate Japan’s withdrawal following its defeat in World War II (September 2).
Flag: Red, with a large yellow five-pointed star in the center.
Transportation And Telecommunications
Transportation Overview: Vietnam’s transportation system is in need of modernization and expansion. Ports are operating at only one-third of capacity. Roads are in generally poor condition, and the underdeveloped railroad system carries less freight than the inland waterways. Motorcycles are more popular than buses. In an effort to improve bus service, Hanoi plans to invite private companies to bid for operating rights for six municipal bus routes.
Roads: Vietnam’s roads extend over 210,000 kilometers, implying a network density twice as
high as Thailand’s and Malaysia’s. However, the condition of the roads is generally poor; only
13.5 percent of the roads are considered to be in good condition. Only 29 percent of the roads are
tarred, and road access is cut off to more than 10 percent of villages for at least one month per
year because of monsoons. In 2005 the construction of the 1,690-kilometer Ho Chi Minh
Highway, which eventually will link Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, was still underway. The
project, which is expected to cost US$500 million, is the largest transportation project since the
end of the Second Indochina War. Despite government efforts to promote the use of buses,
motorcycles remain the preferred mode of local transport. There is one motorcycle for every
seven people. Poorer citizens rely on bicycles, while only the affluent can afford cars.
Railroads: Vietnam has six single-track railroad routes with a total length of 3,260 kilometers. The network’s density is only about one-third the average for low-income countries. The longest railroad line measures 1,730 kilometers from Hanoi to Ho Chi Minh City and requires 32 hours to traverse on the Reunification Express. Of the nation’s inventory of rolling stock, 25 percent is
not operational. Twenty-five percent of the nation’s operational rolling stock is more than 30
years old. Freight traffic picked up in 2000 and 2001 following five years of decline. Vietnam
needs more than US$400 million between 2004 and 2009 to modernize its railroads. The
government plans to build two subway lines in Ho Chi Minh City by 2007. Project-related costs
are estimated at US$800 million.
Ports: The principal ports in Vietnam, listed from north to south, are Haiphong, Quang Ninh,
Danang, Qui Nhon, Ho Chi Minh City, and Can Tho. Altogether, Vietnam has seven
international ports and five additional ports that specialize in transporting oil and coal. The
freight volume is about 14 million tons annually, compared with only 4.5 million tons in 1993.
However, total traffic is only about one-third of capacity. Vietnamese ships carry only about 20
percent of the country’s international trade, although plans exist to expand the merchant fleet
substantially.
Inland Waterways: Vietnam’s inland waterways, primarily the Mekong River and Red River
systems, carry more freight than the railroads, and the volume of freight is rising slowly.
According to the World Bank, transportation productivity via the inland waterways is 40 percent
below the system’s potential, assuming proper maintenance, navigation aids, and dredging.
Civil Aviation and Airports: Vietnam operates 17 major civil airports, including three
international gateways: Noi Bai serving Hanoi, Danang serving Danang City, and Tan Son Nhat
serving Ho Chi Minh City. Tan Son Nhat is the largest, handling 75 percent of international
passenger traffic. Vietnam Airlines, the national airline, has a fleet of 30 aircraft that link
Vietnam with 19 foreign cities. In 2004 Vietnam Airlines had 5 million passengers, up 25
percent from the prior year, and management expects the number of passengers to reach 12
million by 2010. In November 2004, Vietnam Airlines announced that it would purchase 10
Airbus A310–200 aircraft and continue negotiations for four Boeing 7E7 “Dreamliner” aircraft.
Vietnam Airlines’ goal is to expand its fleet to 73 aircraft by 2010. Beginning in 2006, Vietnam
Airlines will cooperate with American Airlines in international flights under a codeshare
agreement. Vietnam Airlines’ code will apply to American Airlines flights from the United
States to Vietnam, Japan, and Europe. American Airlines’ code will apply to Vietnam Airlines
flights from Vietnam to Japan and Europe.
Pipelines: In April 1995, a 125-kilometer natural gas pipeline connecting Bach Ho with a power plant near Vung Tau went into operation. With the subsequent addition of compressors, the
volume pumped rose to more than 1 billion cubic meters per year. In 2005 a 399-kilometer
underwater pipeline, the world’s longest, began to carry natural gas onshore from the Nam Con
Son basin. The pipeline’s anticipated capacity is 2 billion cubic meters per year, while the basin
has an estimated 59 billion cubic meters of natural gas reserves.
Telecommunications: The International Telecommunication Union rates Vietnam’s
telecommunications market the second fastest growing in the world after China. With rapid
telecommunications growth leading to 4.9 million landline telephones and 3.4 million mobile
telephones as of mid-2004, Vietnam’s telephone penetration rate is still only 10 percent. As of
mid-2004, Vietnam had 5.1 million Internet users, corresponding to 6 percent penetration. In
2000 Vietnam had about 600,000 personal computers, or 7.35 for 1,000 people. In 2003 Vietnam
had 8.2 million radios, or 100.45 per 1,000 people. There were 65 AM radio stations, 7 FM
stations, and 29 shortwave stations. Also in 2003, Vietnam had 3.6 million televisions, or 43.73
per 1,000 people. Television broadcast stations numbered at least seven in 1998.
Government And Politics
Government Overview: The Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) has a monopoly on power. A three-person collective leadership consists of the VCP general secretary, the prime minister, and the president. President Tran Duc Luong is the chief of state, while Prime Minister Phan Van Khai is head of government. General Secretary Nong Duc Manh heads up not only the VCP but also the 15-member Politburo. A decision by any member of the triumvirate is vetted by the other two. As a result, policy announcements tend to be bland and equivocal.
In July 2002, the National Assembly voted to keep Prime Minister Khai and President Luong in office until 2007. Khai, who is the oldest member of the cabinet and is known for his pro-reform policies, is believed likely to complete his 2002–7 term because of the absence of an heir apparent. The mechanism for transfers of power suffers from a lack of transparency.
Constitution: Vietnam has had a series of constitutions, introduced in 1946, 1959, 1980, and
1992. As of late 2004, the Vietnamese constitution is regarded as the 1992 document, as
amended in 2001 to continue the reform of the state apparatus, to allow more leeway to the
private sector, and to promote progress in the areas of education, science, and technology. The
original 1992 constitution modestly downgraded the roles of the Vietnamese Communist Party
(VCP) and the government in favor of reform. Instead of being authorized to do whatever was
necessary to “build socialism,” the VCP was subordinated to the constitution and the law, while
the government was assigned specific management functions under the direction of a prime
minister, whose powers also were defined. In addition, the constitution called for a multisector
economy. Although the autonomy of state enterprises was recognized, a role also was assigned to
the private sector. Individuals were permitted to acquire lengthy land leases. Foreign investors
were granted ownership rights and protection against nationalization.
In 2001 the constitution was amended to increase the role of the National Assembly by giving it the authority to decide budget allocations and to stage votes of no confidence in office holders. Amendments also boosted the role of the private sector by recognizing the right to operate of any businesses not explicitly prohibited and lifting restrictions on their size. These revisions were intended to encourage the development of a cottage industry of individual traders and private enterprises. In the field of education, amendments established the goals of universal secondary education, more vocational and technical training, and easier access to education by the poor and handicapped.
Branches of Government: The constitution recognizes the National Assembly as “the highest
organ of state power.” The National Assembly, a 498-member unicameral body elected to a five-
year term, meets twice a year. The assembly appoints the president (chief of state), the prime
minister (head of government), chief procurators of the Supreme People’s Court and the
Supreme People’s Office of Supervision and Control (the heads of the judiciary), and the 21-
member cabinet (the executive). Once a rubber stamp, the National Assembly has become more
assertive in holding ministers accountable and amending legislation. Ultimately, however, the
Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) controls the executive and the electoral process. The VCP
exercises control through the 150-member Central Committee, which elects the 15-member
Politburo at national party congresses held every five years. Members of the party hold all senior
government positions.
The Vietnamese government has ministers in the following areas: agriculture and rural development; construction; culture and information; education and training; finance; foreign affairs; industry; interior; justice; labor, war invalids, and social affairs; marine products; national defense; planning and investment; public health; science, technology and environment; trade; and transport and communications.
Administrative Divisions: Administratively, Vietnam consists of 59 provinces and 5
municipalities. The provinces are An Giang, Bac Giang, Bac Kan, Bac Lieu, Bac Ninh, Ba Ria-
Vung Tau, Ben Tre, Binh Dinh, Binh Duong, Binh Phuoc, Binh Thuan, Ca Mau, Cao Bang, Dac
Lak, Dac Nong, Dien Bien, Dong Nai, Dong Thap, Gia Lai, Ha Giang, Hai Duong, Ha Nam, Ha
Tay, Ha Tinh, Hau Giang, Hoa Binh, Hung Yen, Khanh Hoa, Kien Giang, Kon Tum, Lai Chau,
Lam Dong, Lang Son, Lao Cai, Long An, Nam Dinh, Nghe An, Ninh Binh, Ninh Thuan, Phu
Tho, Phu Yen, Quang Binh, Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Quang Ninh, Quang Tri, Soc Trang, Son
La, Tay Ninh, Thai Binh, Thai Nguyen, Thanh Hoa, Thua Thien-Hue, Tien Giang, Tra Vinh,
Tuyen Quang, Vinh Long, Vinh Phuc, and Yen Bai. The municipalities are Can Tho, Da Nang,
Haiphong, Hanoi, and Ho Chi Minh.
Provincial and Local Government: Provinces and municipalities are subdivided into towns,
districts, and villages. The provinces and municipalities are centrally controlled by the national
government. The towns, districts, and villages are locally accountable to some degree through
elected people’s councils.
Judicial and Legal System: At the apex of the judicial system is the Supreme People’s Court
(SPC), which is the highest court for appeal and review. The SPC reports to the National
Assembly, which controls the judiciary’s budget and confirms the president’s nominees to the
SPC and Supreme People’s Procuracy. The Supreme People’s Procuracy issues arrest warrants,
sometimes retroactively. Below the SPC are district and provincial people’s courts, military
tribunals, and administrative, economic, and labor courts. The people’s courts are the courts of
first instance. The Ministry of Defense (MOD) has military tribunals, which have the same rules
as civil courts. Military judges and assessors are selected by the MOD and SPC, but the SPC has
supervisory responsibility.
Although the constitution provides for independent judges and lay assessors (who lack administrative training), the U.S. Department of State maintains that Vietnam lacks an independent judiciary, in part because the Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) selects judges and vets them for political reliability. Moreover, the party seeks to influence the outcome of cases involving perceived threats to the state or the party’s dominant position. In an effort to increase judicial independence, the government transferred local courts from the Ministry of Justice to the SPC in September 2002. However, the Department of State saw no evidence that the move actually achieved the stated goal. Vietnam’s judiciary also is hampered by a shortage of lawyers and rudimentary trial procedures. The death penalty often is imposed in cases of corruption and drug trafficking.
Electoral System: Vietnam has universal suffrage at age 18. Elections for the National
Assembly are scheduled every five years. The last election was held on May 19, 2002. The next
election is scheduled in 2007. In addition, elections to the people’s councils (local assemblies)
were last held in April 2004. Although candidates are carefully vetted, about 25 percent of those
elected were not members of the Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP). By a law enacted in
2003, each district has at least two more candidates than the number of elected positions.
Politics/Political Parties: Vietnam is a one-party state. The Vietnamese Communist Party
(VCP) has a monopoly on power.
Mass Media: Vietnam’s mass media are supervised by the Ministry of Culture and Information
and communicate officially approved information. The government has shut down non-
compliant newspapers. Only senior officials are permitted access to foreign television via
satellite. Given Vietnam’s close supervision of official media outlets, dissidents have sought to
disseminate their views via the Internet, leading the government to impose restrictions on
Internet use and access. The regime controls Internet access via Vietnam’s sole gateway,
Vietnam Data Communications. In 2002 the Ministry of Culture and Information began to block
access to Internet Web sites it considers “subversive,” such as the BBC’s Vietnamese language
Web site. Also in 2002, the government sent a warning by jailing activists for publishing critical
commentaries on the Internet. Altogether, Reporters Without Borders documented seven cases of
dissidents being imprisoned or detained for illicit Internet use. The government also has
tightened controls over cybercafés. In 2004 the government reprimanded 65 cybercafé owners
for violating restrictions on Internet access, including the viewing of pornography.
Foreign Relations: During its incursion into Cambodia in 1978–89, Vietnam was isolated
internationally. However, soon after the conflict was resolved in the Paris Agreement on
Cambodia in October 1991, Vietnam established or reestablished diplomatic and economic
relations with most of Western Europe, China, and other East Asian countries. Vietnam joined
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1995 and the Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation forum (APEC) in 1998. Vietnam’s foreign policy is aimed at developing good
relations with a diversified mix of nations.
In February 1994, the United States lifted its economic embargo against Vietnam, and in June 1995 the United States and Vietnam normalized relations. However, these relations remain somewhat volatile. Full implementation of a bilateral trade agreement, which came into effect in December 2001, is being held up by a dispute over catfish exports. In July 2003, the International Trade Commission decided in favor of the United States in the catfish dispute. Vietnam’s government is also upset with a bill introduced in the U.S. Congress in July 2004 to link non-humanitarian aid to Vietnam’s human rights record. In June 2005, a high-level Vietnamese delegation, led by Prime Minister Phan Van Khai, visited the United States and met with their U.S. counterparts, including President George W. Bush. This was the first such visit in 30 years. The leaders engaged in far-reaching discussions, including lingering issues from the Second Indochina War, but the United States did not endorse Vietnam’s bid to join the World Trade Organization (WTO) during the visit.
Ideological affinities are driving improved relations with China, and trade between the nations soared to reach US$7.2 billion in 2004. But despite improved relations, Vietnam remains suspicious of China’s intentions. In January 2000, China and Vietnam signed a treaty defining a common land border. However, the countries both claim sovereignty over the Spratly and Paracel Islands in the South China Sea, and this dispute is a potential source of renewed tension.
Vietnam enjoys a good political and economic relationship with Japan, and the two countries are partnering to exploit the disputed offshore oil fields in the South China Sea. At a meeting in Hanoi in July 2004, foreign ministers from the two nations pledged to strengthen the partnership. Already a major trading partner and investor, Japan promised to boost direct investment in Vietnam. Japan also offered support for Vietnam’s bid to join the WTO. In December 2004, Japan announced a grant of US$19 million to fight poverty in Vietnam.
Russia’s predecessor state, the Soviet Union, was a longstanding ally and a major investor. Following the break-up of the Soviet Union, Russia reduced its investments in Vietnam. Trade also suffered as a result of a dispute over the large debt that Vietnam owed the Soviet Union. This debt has been restructured to Vietnam’s benefit so that Vietnam now must repay only 15 percent, with payments stretched over two decades. Part of the debt is repayable in commodities such as rice and coffee.
Membership in International Organizations: Vietnam is a member of the Asian Development
Bank, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, the International Monetary Fund, the
United Nations, and the World Health Organization. Reflecting Vietnam’s recognition of its
place in the global economy, in 1995 Vietnam joined the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN). Now an observer at the World Trade Organization (WTO), Vietnam hopes to become
a full member of the WTO in 2006.
Other memberships include the Colombo Plan for Cooperative Economic and Social Development in Asia and the Pacific, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, International Atomic Energy Agency, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), International Civil Aviation Organization, International Development Association, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Finance Corporation, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, International Labour Organization, International Maritime Organization, Interpol, International Olympic Committee, International Telecommunication Union, Nonaligned Movement, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, United Nations Industrial Development Organization, World Confederation of Labor, World Customs Organization, World Federation of Trade Unions, and World Intellectual Property Organization.
Major International Treaties: With the United States, Vietnam reached the following
agreements: Normalization of Relations (1995), Bilateral Trade (2001), and Counternarcotics,
Civil Aviation, and Textiles (2003). With China, Vietnam reached a Land Border Agreement
(1999), an Agreement on Borders in the Gulf of Tonkin (2000), and a Declaration on the
Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea (2002). With Russia, Vietnam agreed to a Strategic
Partnership (2001).
Aside from these bilateral agreements, Vietnam is a signatory to numerous international agreements on biological weapons, chemical weapons, civil aviation, counterterrorism, diplomatic immunity, nuclear nonproliferation, and war crimes. Notable agreements on the environment include the following: Convention on the Prohibition of Military or any other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (1978), Convention on Early
Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986), Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency (1987), Convention for Protection of the Ozone Layer (1988), Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1989), and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1994).
National Security
Armed Forces Overview: Since Vietnam fought against the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia in 1978–89, it has demobilized about 500,000 troops and cut military spending. Still, Vietnam has one of the region’s largest and most powerful militaries. Furthermore, the People’s Army of Vietnam remains politically influential, and many senior officers have obtained leadership positions in the Central Committee and Politburo of the Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP). The military’s prestige stems from its formidable track record against such major world military powers as France, the United States, and China and its deep roots in society.
Foreign Military Relations: Vietnam cooperates militarily with India and China. Vietnam
advises India on how to combat guerrilla warfare. India helps maintain Vietnam’s MiG fighter
planes and helps Vietnam manufacture small- and medium-sized weapons. In 2001 Vietnam
bolstered its military cooperation with China. Russia has reduced its military presence in
Vietnam since it abandoned control over the Camh Ranh Bay Naval Base in 2001 because it
could not afford the expense.
External Threat: Despite having fought a border war with China in 1979, Vietnam does not
face an identifiable military enemy. However, sovereignty over the Spratly and Paracel Islands in
the South China Sea remains in dispute with China and several other nations. In addition,
Cambodia and Laos have protested incursions by Vietnamese squatters.
Defense Budget: In 2003 Vietnam’s defense budget was estimated at US$2.3 billion.
Major Military Units: Vietnam’s active-duty military consists of a 412,000-member army, a
42,000-member navy, a 30,000-member air and air defense force, and a 40,000-member
paramilitary border defense corps. The army, which is deployed in nine military regions
(including Hanoi), consists of headquarters, 58 infantry divisions, 3 mechanized infantry
divisions, 10 armored battalions, 15 independent infantry regiments, special forces and airborne
brigades, 10 field artillery brigades, 8 engineering divisions, 10 to 15 economic construction
divisions, and 20 independent engineering brigades. The navy, including naval infantry, is
deployed in four naval regions. The People’s Air Force consists of three air divisions, each with
three regiments.
Major Military Equipment: The army is equipped with 1,315 main battle tanks, 620 light
tanks, 100 reconnaissance vehicles, 300 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 1,380 armored
personnel carriers, 2,300 towed artillery, and more than 30 self-propelled artillery. The army also
has an unspecified number of combined gun/mortars, assault guns, multiple rocket launchers,
mortars, surface-to-surface missiles, antitank guided weapons, recoilless launchers, air defense
guns, and surface-to-air missiles. The navy has 2 Yugo-class submarines, 6 frigates, 1 corvette,
12 missile craft, 10 torpedo craft, 19 inshore patrol combatants, 10 mine warfare ships, 6
amphibious ships, and at least 30 support craft. The People’s Air Force has 189 combat aircraft
(53 Su–22, 12 Su–27, and 124 MiG–21) and 26 Mi–24 armed helicopters.
Military Service: Military service is compulsory, usually for two years. In late 2001, Vietnam
reinstated the requirement that women register for military service. However, barring an
emergency mobilization, they are unlikely to be called up. Mandatory military service for
women had been abandoned in 1975 at the end of the nation’s civil war.
Paramilitary Forces: Vietnam has a 4-million to 5-million-member paramilitary reserve force,
consisting of the People’s Self-Defense Force and the rural People’s Militia.
Police: The Ministry of Public Security controls the police, a national security investigative agency, and other units that maintain internal security.
Internal Threat: The government seeks to prevent the expression of views critical of the
government and non-sanctioned religious worship. When some dissidents sought to evade
official media controls by using the Internet to disseminate their views, the government
responded by introducing Internet restrictions. Although dissident activity generates substantial
press commentary, it does not pose a threat to the regime’s stability.
The Montagnard ethnic minority represents a special case. This group is seeking a return of its
ancestral lands in the Central Highlands. The Montagnards, who traditionally have opposed the
communist government, receive support from overseas Vietnamese, particularly the United
States-based Montagnard Foundation. After a violent clash with demonstrators in April 2004, the
government boosted its security presence in the region.
Terrorism: Following al Qaeda’s attack on the United States on September 11, 2001, Vietnam
expressed sympathy for the victims and qualified support for the war on terrorism. Vietnam
urged that any steps taken against terrorists be consistent with international cooperation within
the bounds of the United Nations Charter, target the culprits, and avoid larger-scale warfare.
In April 2004, the State Bank of Vietnam (SBV) issued a draft decree to combat money
laundering as a source of terrorist financing. This move followed pressure from the United
States, which denied requests by the Vietcombank and the Vietnam Bank for Investment and
Development to set up representative offices on the grounds that they could be used to finance
international terrorism.
Human Rights: In its 2004 report on Human Rights Practices, the U.S. Department of State
characterized Vietnam’s human rights record as “poor” and cited the continuation of “serious
abuses.” According to the report, the government has imposed restrictions on freedom of speech,
freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, and freedom of association. Citizens are denied the
right to change their government. The government continues to hold political prisoners who have
expressed views at odds with government policy. Prison conditions are generally “harsh, but not
unduly so given the country's level of economic development,” according to the State
Department assessment. Vietnam has no independent judiciary, and there is no right to a fair and
speedy trial. Human rights organizations are not permitted to operate. Discrimination against
women and ethnic minorities, child labor, and prostitution are serious problems. The government
is attempting to address the child labor issue.
The government officially provides for freedom of religion and recognizes Buddhist, Roman
Catholic, Protestant, Hoa Hao, Cao Dai, and Muslim denominations. However, non-sanctioned
groups, including branches of even the recognized denominations, face harassment. Furthermore,
the government insists on supervising the clergies of the sanctioned groups (by approving
appointments, for example) in the interest of “national unity.”
In April 2004, 20,000 to 30,000 members of the Montagnard ethnic minority gathered to protest
for the return of their ancestral lands in the Central Highlands and an end to religious repression.
Human Rights Watch alleges that hundreds of demonstrators were wounded and at least 10 killed
in a clash with Vietnamese officials and civilians. The Vietnamese government is concerned that
the Montagnards are seeking an independent state.
Name: Vietnam
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