Changes

== Early Classical ==

== Early Classical ==

Cyrus the Great after having successfully rebelled and overthrown the Median King, invaded Lydia in 546 BCE and conquered it. In 538 BCE he overran Babylonia. Along with the conquest of Egypt by his son Cambyses the Persian Empire reached an unprecedented size for West Eurasia. Cambyses' plans to continue west against Carthage came to nothing when the Phoenicians refused to participate - Carthage had taken pains to maintain its links with its mother city Tyre.

[[Cyrus the Great]] after having successfully rebelled and overthrown the Median King, invaded [[Lydia]] in 546 BCE and conquered it. In 538 BCE he overran [[Babylonia]]. Along with the conquest of [[Egypt]] by his son [[Cambyses]] the [[Persian Empire]] reached an unprecedented size for West Eurasia. Cambyses' plans to continue west against [[Carthage]] came to nothing when the [[Phoenicians]] refused to participate - Carthage had taken pains to maintain its links with its mother city [[Tyre]].

The Greco-Persian Wars (circa 500 BCE - 448 BCE) between the Persian Empire and the Greek city states, resulted in a stalemate and Persian Kings from them on chose a policy of divide and rule. This allowed Persia to regain control of the Ionian cities of Anatolia at the end of the Peloponnesian War but the policy was most successful during the Corinthian War. However Philip II of Macedon secured a hegemony over the Greek city states. In 334 Philip's son Alexander crossed into Asia, and in a series of campaigns conquered the Persian Empire. Though on his death, in 323, war between his generals divided his Empire, the Hellenistic age was marked by a spread of Greek culture and language thru much of Western Asia and Egypt.

The [[Greco-Persian Wars]] (circa 500 BCE - 448 BCE) between the Persian Empire and the [[Greek city states]], resulted in a stalemate and Persian Kings from them on chose a policy of [[divide and rule]]. This allowed Persia to regain control of the Ionian cities of [[Anatolia]] at the end of the [[Peloponnesian War]] but the policy was most successful during the [[Corinthian War]]. However [[Philip II of Macedon]] secured a [[hegemony]] over the Greek city states. In 334 Philip's son [[Alexander]] crossed into Asia, and in a series of campaigns conquered the Persian Empire. Though on his death, in 323, war between his generals divided his Empire, the Hellenistic age was marked by a spread of Greek culture and language thru much of Western Asia and Egypt.

The Seleucid Empire had been reestablishing its traditional preeminence in the Eastern Mediterranean under Antiochus III the Great taking the long coveted Coele-Syria from the Ptolemids after the Battle of Panium in 198 BCE. War between Antiochus and Rome broke out when Antiochus entered Greece in alliance with Aetolia. Driven out of Greece he was defeated at the Battle of Magnesia in 198 BCE.

The Seleucid Empire had been reestablishing its traditional preeminence in the Eastern Mediterranean under Antiochus III the Great taking the long coveted Coele-Syria from the Ptolemids after the Battle of Panium in 198 BCE. War between Antiochus and Rome broke out when Antiochus entered Greece in alliance with Aetolia. Driven out of Greece he was defeated at the Battle of Magnesia in 198 BCE.

 

== Roman dominance ==

 

 

 

Roman dominance  

By the middle of the 4th Century the Germanic Ostrogoths had established a large kingdom north of the Black Sea. According to tradition (or legend?) it was huge, extending to the Baltic Sea.

By the middle of the 4th Century the Germanic Ostrogoths had established a large kingdom north of the Black Sea. According to tradition (or legend?) it was huge, extending to the Baltic Sea.

== The Fall of Rome ==

 

 

The Fall of Rome  

In 376 the Huns attacked the Ostrogothic kingdom. The Ostrogoths were defeated and the defeated Germans were soon on the banks of the Danube clamoring to be allowed to cross into the safety of the Roman Empire. Valens the emperor based in Constantinople reluctantly agreed. His misgivings were confirmed when things got out of hand. In 378 the Roman army was defeated at the Battle of Adrianople and Valens killed during the rout. In the wake of the battle the Balkans were devastated but Theodosius I the new Eastern Emperor gradually recovered the Roman position and he successfully defeated rival emperors in the East. After his death a period of instability and Germanic incursions, especially in the Western half of the Empire, culminated in the sack of Rome by Alaric I of the Visigoths in 410. By now a quite a diverse number of Germanic tribes along with a group of Alans were residents of the Western Empire. Whenever a strong leader emerged at the head of the Empire these tribal groups were forced back into limited areas. Whenever the current Roman leader died a prolonged power struggle ensued which the tribal confederacies took advantage of. At least North Africa was safe from raids - until a Vandal-Alan tribal alliance crossed the straits of Gibralter in 429. Meanwhile the Huns north of the Danube had established a huge hegemony, forcing virtually all Germanic tribes outside the Roman Empire into submission. This did at least stabilize Germany to the extent that there were no new influxes of Germans until the Huns under Attila decided to invade the Empire themselves. The climax of the resulting conflict was when Flavius A�tius organized a mixed German-Roman force that forced Attila back at the Battle of Chalons, in 451.

In 376 the Huns attacked the Ostrogothic kingdom. The Ostrogoths were defeated and the defeated Germans were soon on the banks of the Danube clamoring to be allowed to cross into the safety of the Roman Empire. Valens the emperor based in Constantinople reluctantly agreed. His misgivings were confirmed when things got out of hand. In 378 the Roman army was defeated at the Battle of Adrianople and Valens killed during the rout. In the wake of the battle the Balkans were devastated but Theodosius I the new Eastern Emperor gradually recovered the Roman position and he successfully defeated rival emperors in the East. After his death a period of instability and Germanic incursions, especially in the Western half of the Empire, culminated in the sack of Rome by Alaric I of the Visigoths in 410. By now a quite a diverse number of Germanic tribes along with a group of Alans were residents of the Western Empire. Whenever a strong leader emerged at the head of the Empire these tribal groups were forced back into limited areas. Whenever the current Roman leader died a prolonged power struggle ensued which the tribal confederacies took advantage of. At least North Africa was safe from raids - until a Vandal-Alan tribal alliance crossed the straits of Gibralter in 429. Meanwhile the Huns north of the Danube had established a huge hegemony, forcing virtually all Germanic tribes outside the Roman Empire into submission. This did at least stabilize Germany to the extent that there were no new influxes of Germans until the Huns under Attila decided to invade the Empire themselves. The climax of the resulting conflict was when Flavius A�tius organized a mixed German-Roman force that forced Attila back at the Battle of Chalons, in 451.

These changes changed Western Eurasia from an unipolar world to a multipolar world. In the area of the Western Roman Empire the centralized tax funded state defended by a standing army had been swept away. Christianity provided some continuity but the decline in secular literacy along with the increasing independence of the Papacy, no longer beholden to the Emperor, opened the way to a very different direction of development. (The Fall of the Roman Empire: Peter Heather)

These changes changed Western Eurasia from an unipolar world to a multipolar world. In the area of the Western Roman Empire the centralized tax funded state defended by a standing army had been swept away. Christianity provided some continuity but the decline in secular literacy along with the increasing independence of the Papacy, no longer beholden to the Emperor, opened the way to a very different direction of development. (The Fall of the Roman Empire: Peter Heather)

== A multipolar subcontinent ==

 

 

A multipolar subcontinent  

The Eastern Empire survived in part because its main rival the Sassanids had troubles of their own fending off attacks from the steppes by the White Huns. From the beginning of the 6th century the Sassanids began to contain this threat and were again able to be an annoyance to the Eastern Empire. Nevertheless the Emperor Justinian was able to dispatch Belisarius against the Vandals. Despite very forces he succeeded, Carthage falling in 533. Justinian�s next target the Ostrogoths who were only finally defeated in 552 at Busta Gallorum.

The Eastern Empire survived in part because its main rival the Sassanids had troubles of their own fending off attacks from the steppes by the White Huns. From the beginning of the 6th century the Sassanids began to contain this threat and were again able to be an annoyance to the Eastern Empire. Nevertheless the Emperor Justinian was able to dispatch Belisarius against the Vandals. Despite very forces he succeeded, Carthage falling in 533. Justinian�s next target the Ostrogoths who were only finally defeated in 552 at Busta Gallorum.

Byzantine forces secured the Sassanid throne for Khosrau at the Battle of Zab in 591. Khosrau was now personally indebted to the Byzantine emperor Maurice and so with his rear secure he concentrated on defeating the Avars. However his stern discipline provoked a mutiny and he was murdered by the usurper Phocas. Khosrau then declared a war of vengeance against the murderer of his benefactor bringing Byzantium close to disaster so enabling Heraclius to overthrow Phocas. In a war of two decades Heraclius took Byzantium from the brink of collapse to the point where the Sassanids were forced to make terms in 628. These long years of warfare had almost no significant result - except to leave both the Sassanid and the Byzantine Empires exhausted.

Byzantine forces secured the Sassanid throne for Khosrau at the Battle of Zab in 591. Khosrau was now personally indebted to the Byzantine emperor Maurice and so with his rear secure he concentrated on defeating the Avars. However his stern discipline provoked a mutiny and he was murdered by the usurper Phocas. Khosrau then declared a war of vengeance against the murderer of his benefactor bringing Byzantium close to disaster so enabling Heraclius to overthrow Phocas. In a war of two decades Heraclius took Byzantium from the brink of collapse to the point where the Sassanids were forced to make terms in 628. These long years of warfare had almost no significant result - except to leave both the Sassanid and the Byzantine Empires exhausted.

== Enter the Arabs ==

 

 

Enter the Arabs  

In 629 an Arab raid on Byzantine Syria was the harbinger of the onslaught by Arab armies against the exhausted Sassanid and the Byzantine Empires. United by the monotheistic religion Islam they inflicted decisive defeats on the Byzantines (Battle of Yarmouk in Syria) and the Persians (Battle of Kadisiya, 637). By 642 they had overrun Egypt and by 650 the Sassanid Empire had been completely conquered. The Arab Khalifate was marked by the complete lack of division between religion and statecraft. Hence the civil war that broke out in 656 was both dynastic and religious. This did at least give the Byzantines something of a respite but nonetheless they failed to prevent the Arab conquest of North Africa which they completed by 709. Many Berbers converted to Islam and these made up a large section of the force which crossed over in Visgothic Hispania in 711. After their defeat at the Battle of Guadalete the Visigoths were quickly overrun.

In 629 an Arab raid on Byzantine Syria was the harbinger of the onslaught by Arab armies against the exhausted Sassanid and the Byzantine Empires. United by the monotheistic religion Islam they inflicted decisive defeats on the Byzantines (Battle of Yarmouk in Syria) and the Persians (Battle of Kadisiya, 637). By 642 they had overrun Egypt and by 650 the Sassanid Empire had been completely conquered. The Arab Khalifate was marked by the complete lack of division between religion and statecraft. Hence the civil war that broke out in 656 was both dynastic and religious. This did at least give the Byzantines something of a respite but nonetheless they failed to prevent the Arab conquest of North Africa which they completed by 709. Many Berbers converted to Islam and these made up a large section of the force which crossed over in Visgothic Hispania in 711. After their defeat at the Battle of Guadalete the Visigoths were quickly overrun.

As well as this "rebirth" of Western Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire continued to be the up. Eastwards their rule was pushed as far as Antioch (taken in 969), while their conquest of the West Bulgarian Empire in 1018 meant they now controlled most of the Balkans. Part of the reason for this Byzantine success was their main rival, the Abbasid Khalifate completely collapsed. The Fatamids overran Egypt and Syria while the Buyids overran Iran and Mesopotamia. The Abbasid Khalifate lived on as merley spiritual authority to which the Buyaids were happy to defer to so long as it stayed spiritual. A third Khalifate appeared or rather was reborn in the West when the Umayyad Emirate that had expanded into Morocco proclaimed themselves as Khalifate in 929. But this was their highpoint. In little more than a 100 years the Khalifate had disintegrated and finally expired in 1031.

As well as this "rebirth" of Western Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire continued to be the up. Eastwards their rule was pushed as far as Antioch (taken in 969), while their conquest of the West Bulgarian Empire in 1018 meant they now controlled most of the Balkans. Part of the reason for this Byzantine success was their main rival, the Abbasid Khalifate completely collapsed. The Fatamids overran Egypt and Syria while the Buyids overran Iran and Mesopotamia. The Abbasid Khalifate lived on as merley spiritual authority to which the Buyaids were happy to defer to so long as it stayed spiritual. A third Khalifate appeared or rather was reborn in the West when the Umayyad Emirate that had expanded into Morocco proclaimed themselves as Khalifate in 929. But this was their highpoint. In little more than a 100 years the Khalifate had disintegrated and finally expired in 1031.

== High Medieval ==

 

 

High Medieval  

For some time Normans had been employed in the Byzantine-Lombard conflict in Southern Italy. With the capture of Melfi in 1040 by Robert Guiscard it was clear that the Normans were out of control and soon not only Southern Italy had been conquered by the Normans but also, the Emirate of Sicily. The stay at home Normans, not to be outdone, conquered England.  

For some time Normans had been employed in the Byzantine-Lombard conflict in Southern Italy. With the capture of Melfi in 1040 by Robert Guiscard it was clear that the Normans were out of control and soon not only Southern Italy had been conquered by the Normans but also, the Emirate of Sicily. The stay at home Normans, not to be outdone, conquered England.  

In 1220 the Mongols crashed into Persia, at time ruled by Khwarezmids. In 1223 it was the turn of the Kievan Rus' who were defeated at the Battle of the Kalka River. The systematic conquest of Russia was to follow in 1237. In 1258 Baghdad was attacked and the Abbasid Khalif executed by being trampled under the hoofs of the mongol horses. What finally halted Mongol expansion was its internal problems and on the death of Kublai Khan in 1294 the empire fragmented. Two of the fragments, the Golden Horde in Russia and the Ilkhanate in Persia were themselves major West Eurasian powers. The Ilkhanate adopted Islam in 1295.

In 1220 the Mongols crashed into Persia, at time ruled by Khwarezmids. In 1223 it was the turn of the Kievan Rus' who were defeated at the Battle of the Kalka River. The systematic conquest of Russia was to follow in 1237. In 1258 Baghdad was attacked and the Abbasid Khalif executed by being trampled under the hoofs of the mongol horses. What finally halted Mongol expansion was its internal problems and on the death of Kublai Khan in 1294 the empire fragmented. Two of the fragments, the Golden Horde in Russia and the Ilkhanate in Persia were themselves major West Eurasian powers. The Ilkhanate adopted Islam in 1295.

See also  

See also  

History of Eurasia

[[History of Eurasia]]

History of Europe

[[History of Europe]]

History of the Middle East

[[History of the Middle East]]

History of the Mediterranean region

[[History of the Mediterranean region]]

History of North Africa

[[History of North Africa]]

Classical antiquity

[[Classical antiquity]]